1888 VICTORIA CROWN Solid Silver Antique Coin Old Jack the Ripper London Vintage • $319.87 (2024)

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Seller: anddownthewaterfall ✉️ (34,319) 99.8%, Location: Manchester, Take a Look at My Other Items, GB, Ships to: WORLDWIDE, Item: 365055437502 1888 VICTORIA CROWN Solid Silver Antique Coin Old Jack the Ripper London Vintage. E.g. Marriott, Trevor, p. 251; Rumbelow, p. 49. External links. Rumbelow, p. 14. July–September. Carlos Quintanilla. 2014 or 1633 or 861. Weight - 28.35 g. September 27. Queen Victoria Solid Silver Crown This is a 1888 Victorian Crown which was minted the same year as the Jack the Ripper Murders occurred in London Could this coin had been in Jacks Pocket as he Murdered his Victims? The Coin features the Robed Jubilee bust portrait of mature Queen Victoria facing left, adorned with jewellery, veil, and a small crown as designed by Joseph Edgar Boehm The obverse, with the reverse design depicting the famed St George, the paton saint of England and the Dragon by Benedetto Pistrucci. The Victoria Jubilee Head obverse design was adopted from 1887 for silver and gold coins only, and was continued until the old head portrait was introduced in 1893. It was the second major portrait type of Victoria's reign, and was introduced for the golden jubilee (50 years) of Queen Victoria's reign. She acceded to the throne in 1837. The Obverse reads 'VICTORIA D:G: BRITT:REG:F:D:'. Monarch - Victoria (1837 - 1901) Edge - reeded Weight - 28.35 g Diameter - 38.6 mm Composition - 92.5% silver Minted - London, England Mintage - approx. 1,807,223 (inc varieties) This vintage 1888 Victoria Crown is a valuable addition to any coin collection. Made of solid 0.925 silver, this antique coin features a stunning design that showcases the era of Queen Victoria's reign. The intricate details on the coin speaks to the craftsmanship of the United Kingdom during this time period. The denomination of this coin is a Crown and it was minted in Great Britain. The fineness of the silver used is 0.925, which ensures the durability of the coin. With its sterling proof quality, this vintage piece is a true testament to the rich history and culture of Great Britain. A wonderful item for anyone who loves the Royal Family It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop. This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage. "e have decided to sell some of her items to raise money for a Memorial Bench with a plaque Where we can sit and remember her on Summer Days I hope it will find a good home In Very good condition for over 131 Years Old Comes from a pet and smoke free home Sorry about the poor quality photos. They don't do the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life I have a lot of Historical Memorabilia on Ebay so Check out my other items ! Bid with Confidence - Check My Almost 100% Positive Feedback from over 20,000 Satisfied Check out my other items ! All Payment Methods in All Major Currencies Accepted. Be sure to add me to your favourites list ! All Items Dispatched within 24 hours of Receiving Payment . Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!! 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Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, f*ckuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra Jack the Ripper Article Talk Read View source View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Report an issue with dark mode Featured article Page semi-protected Listen to this article From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the serial killer. For other uses, see Jack the Ripper (disambiguation). For the murders in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891, see Whitechapel murders. Jack the Ripper Drawing of a man with a pulled-up collar and pulled-down hat walking alone on a street watched by a group of well-dressed men behind him "With the Vigilance Committee in the East End: A Suspicious Character" from The Illustrated London News, 13 October 1888 Born Unknown Other names "The Whitechapel Murderer" "Leather Apron" Motive Unknown (possibly sexual sadism and/or rage) Details Victims Unknown (5 canonical) Date 1888–1891 (1888: 5 canonical) Location(s) Whitechapel and Spitalfields, London, England (5 canonical) Jack the Ripper was an unidentified serial killer active in and around the impoverished Whitechapel district of London, England, in 1888. In both criminal case files and the contemporaneous journalistic accounts, the killer was also called the Whitechapel Murderer and Leather Apron. Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved women working as prostitutes who lived and worked in the slums of the East End of London. Their throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of internal organs from at least three of the victims led to speculation that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, and numerous letters were received by media outlets and Scotland Yard from individuals purporting to be the murderer. The name "Jack the Ripper" originated in the "Dear Boss letter" written by an individual claiming to be the murderer, which was disseminated in the press. The letter is widely believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists to heighten interest in the story and increase their newspapers' circulation. The "From Hell letter" received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee came with half of a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. The public came increasingly to believe in the existence of a single serial killer known as Jack the Ripper, mainly because of both the extraordinarily brutal nature of the murders and media coverage of the crimes. Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, and the legend solidified. A police investigation into a series of eleven brutal murders committed in Whitechapel and Spitalfields between 1888 and 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888. Five victims—Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly—are known as the "canonical five" and their murders between 31 August and 9 November 1888 are often considered the most likely to be linked. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding these crimes became a combination of historical research, folklore, and pseudohistory, capturing public imagination to the present day. Background Women and children congregate in front of one of the Whitechapel common lodging-houses close to where Jack the Ripper murdered two of his victims[1] In the mid-19th century, England experienced an influx of Irish immigrants who swelled the populations of the major cities, including the East End of London. From 1882, Jewish refugees fleeing pogroms in the Russian Empire and other areas of Eastern Europe emigrated into the same area.[2] The parish of Whitechapel in the East End became increasingly overcrowded, with the population increasing to approximately 80,000 inhabitants by 1888.[3] Work and housing conditions worsened, and a significant economic underclass developed.[4] Fifty-five per cent of children born in the East End died before they were five years old.[5] Robbery, violence, and alcohol dependency were commonplace,[3] and the endemic poverty drove many women to prostitution to survive on a daily basis.[6] In October 1888, London's Metropolitan Police Service estimated that there were 62 brothels and 1,200 women working as prostitutes in Whitechapel,[7] with approximately 8,500 people residing in the 233 common lodging-houses within Whitechapel every night,[3] with the nightly price for a coffin bed being fourpence (equivalent to £2 in 2023)[8] and the cost of sleeping upon a "lean-to" or "hang-over" rope stretched across the dormitory being two pence per person.[9] The economic problems in Whitechapel were accompanied by a steady rise in social tensions. Between 1886 and 1889, frequent demonstrations led to police intervention and public unrest, such as Bloody Sunday (1887).[10] Antisemitism, crime, nativism, racism, social disturbance, and severe deprivation influenced public perceptions that Whitechapel was a notorious den of immorality.[11] Such perceptions were strengthened in 1888 when the series of vicious and grotesque murders attributed to "Jack the Ripper" received unprecedented coverage in the media.[12] Murders Main article: Whitechapel murders Victorian map of London marked with seven dots within a few streets of each other The sites of the first seven Whitechapel murders – Osborn Street (centre right), George Yard (centre left), Hanbury Street (top), Buck's Row (far right), Berner Street (bottom right), Mitre Square (bottom left), and Dorset Street (middle left) The large number of attacks against women in the East End during this time adds uncertainty to how many victims were murdered by the same individual.[13] Eleven separate murders, stretching from 3 April 1888 to 13 February 1891, were included in a Metropolitan Police investigation and were known collectively in the police docket as the "Whitechapel murders".[14][15] Opinions vary as to whether these murders should be linked to the same culprit, but five of the eleven Whitechapel murders, known as the "canonical five", are widely believed to be the work of the Ripper.[16] Most experts point to deep slash wounds to the throat, followed by extensive abdominal and genital-area mutilation, the removal of internal organs, and progressive facial mutilations as the distinctive features of the Ripper's modus operandi.[17] The first two cases in the Whitechapel murders file, those of Emma Elizabeth Smith and Martha Tabram, are not included in the canonical five.[18] Smith was robbed and sexually assaulted in Osborn Street, Whitechapel, at approximately 1:30 a.m. on 3 April 1888.[19] She had been bludgeoned about the face and received a cut to her ear.[20] A blunt object was also inserted into her vagin*, rupturing her peritoneum. She developed peritonitis and died the following day at London Hospital.[21] Smith stated that she had been attacked by two or three men, one of whom she described as a teenager.[22] This attack was linked to the later murders by the press,[23] but most authors attribute Smith's murder to general East End gang violence unrelated to the Ripper case.[14][24][25] Tabram was murdered on a staircase landing in George Yard, Whitechapel, on 7 August 1888;[26] she had suffered 39 stab wounds to her throat, lungs, heart, liver, spleen, stomach, and abdomen, with additional knife wounds inflicted to her breasts and vagin*.[27] All but one of Tabram's wounds had been inflicted with a bladed instrument such as a penknife, and with one possible exception, all the wounds had been inflicted by a right-handed individual.[26] Tabram had not been raped.[28] The savagery of the Tabram murder, the lack of an obvious motive, and the closeness of the location and date to the later canonical Ripper murders led police to link this murder to those later committed by Jack the Ripper.[29] However, this murder differs from the later canonical murders because although Tabram had been repeatedly stabbed, she had not suffered any slash wounds to her throat or abdomen.[30] Many experts do not connect Tabram's murder with the later murders because of this difference in the wound pattern.[31] Canonical five The canonical five Ripper victims are Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chapman, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes, and Mary Jane Kelly.[32] The body of Mary Ann Nichols was discovered at about 3:40 a.m. on Friday 31 August 1888 in Buck's Row (now Durward Street), Whitechapel. Nichols had last been seen alive approximately one hour before the discovery of her body by a Mrs. Emily Holland, with whom she had previously shared a bed at a common lodging-house in Thrawl Street, Spitalfields, walking in the direction of Whitechapel Road.[33] Her throat was severed by two deep cuts, one of which completely severed all the tissue down to the vertebrae.[34] Her vagin* had been stabbed twice,[35] and the lower part of her abdomen was partly ripped open by a deep, jagged wound, causing her bowels to protrude.[36] Several other incisions inflicted to both sides of her abdomen had also been caused by the same knife; each of these wounds had been inflicted in a downward thrusting manner.[37] 29 Hanbury Street. The door through which Annie Chapman and her murderer walked to the yard where her body was discovered is beneath the numerals of the property sign. One week later, on Saturday 8 September 1888, the body of Annie Chapman was discovered at approximately 6 a.m. near the steps to the doorway of the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street, Spitalfields. As in the case of Nichols, the throat was severed by two deep cuts.[38] Her abdomen had been cut entirely open, with a section of the flesh from her stomach being placed upon her left shoulder and another section of skin and flesh—plus her small intestines—being removed and placed above her right shoulder.[39] Chapman's autopsy also revealed that her uterus and sections of her bladder and vagin*[40] had been removed.[41] At the inquest into Chapman's murder, Elizabeth Long described having seen Chapman standing outside 29 Hanbury Street at about 5:30 a.m.[42] in the company of a dark-haired man wearing a brown deer-stalker hat and dark overcoat, and of a "shabby-genteel" appearance.[43] According to this eyewitness, the man had asked Chapman, "Will you?" to which Chapman had replied, "Yes."[44] Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes were both killed in the early morning hours of Sunday 30 September 1888. Stride's body was discovered at approximately 1 a.m. in Dutfield's Yard, off Berner Street (now Henriques Street) in Whitechapel.[45] The cause of death was a single clear-cut incision, measuring six inches across her neck which had severed her left carotid artery and her trachea before terminating beneath her right jaw.[46] The absence of any further mutilations to her body has led to uncertainty as to whether Stride's murder was committed by the Ripper, or whether he was interrupted during the attack.[47] Several witnesses later informed police they had seen Stride in the company of a man in or close to Berner Street on the evening of 29 September and in the early hours of 30 September,[48] but each gave differing descriptions: some said that her companion was fair, others dark; some said that he was shabbily dressed, others well-dressed.[49] Contemporaneous police drawing of the body of Catherine Eddowes, as discovered in Mitre Square Eddowes's body was found in a corner of Mitre Square in the City of London, three-quarters of an hour after the discovery of the body of Elizabeth Stride.[50] Her throat was severed from ear to ear and her abdomen ripped open by a long, deep and jagged wound before her intestines had been placed over her right shoulder, with a section of the intestine being completely detached and placed between her body and left arm.[51] The left kidney and the major part of Eddowes's uterus had been removed, and her face had been disfigured, with her nose severed, her cheek slashed, and cuts measuring a quarter of an inch and a half an inch respectively vertically incised through each of her eyelids.[52] A triangular incision—the apex of which pointed towards Eddowes's eye—had also been carved upon each of her cheeks,[53] and a section of the auricle and lobe of her right ear was later recovered from her clothing.[54] The police surgeon who conducted the post mortem upon Eddowes's body stated his opinion these mutilations would have taken "at least five minutes" to complete.[55] A local cigarette salesman named Joseph Lawende had passed by a narrow walkway to Mitre Square named Church Passage with two friends shortly before the murder;[56] he later described seeing a fair-haired man of medium build with a shabby appearance with a woman who may have been Eddowes.[57] Lawende's companions were unable to confirm his description.[57] The murders of Stride and Eddowes ultimately became known as the "double event".[58][59] A section of Eddowes's bloodied apron was found at the entrance to a tenement in Goulston Street, Whitechapel, at 2:55 a.m.[60] A chalk inscription upon the wall directly above this piece of apron read: "The Juwes are The men That Will not be Blamed for nothing."[61] This graffito became known as the Goulston Street graffito. The message appeared to imply that a Jew or Jews in general were responsible for the series of murders, but it is unclear whether the graffito was written by the murderer on dropping the section of apron, or was merely incidental and nothing to do with the case.[62] Such graffiti were commonplace in Whitechapel. Police Commissioner Sir Charles Warren feared that the graffito might spark antisemitic riots and ordered the writing washed away before dawn.[63][64] The extensively mutilated and disembowelled body of Mary Jane Kelly was discovered lying on the bed in the single room where she lived at 13 Miller's Court, off Dorset Street, Spitalfields, at 10:45 a.m. on Friday 9 November 1888.[65] Her face had been "hacked beyond all recognition",[66] with her throat severed down to the spine, and the abdomen almost emptied of its organs.[67] Her uterus, kidneys and one breast had been placed beneath her head, and other viscera from her body placed beside her foot,[68] about the bed and sections of her abdomen and thighs upon a bedside table. The heart was missing from the crime scene.[69] Multiple ashes found within the fireplace at 13 Miller's Court suggested Kelly's murderer had burned several combustible items to illuminate the single room as he mutilated her body. A recent fire had been severe enough to melt the solder between a kettle and its spout, which had fallen into the grate of the fireplace.[70] Black and white photograph of an eviscerated human body lying on a bed. The face is mutilated. Official police photograph of the body of Mary Jane Kelly as discovered in 13 Miller's Court, Spitalfields, 9 November 1888 Each of the canonical five murders was perpetrated at night, on or close to a weekend, either at the end of a month or a week (or so) after.[71] The mutilations became increasingly severe as the series of murders proceeded, except for that of Stride, whose attacker may have been interrupted.[72] Nichols was not missing any organs; Chapman's uterus and sections of her bladder and vagin* were taken; Eddowes had her uterus and left kidney removed and her face mutilated; and Kelly's body was extensively eviscerated, with her face "gashed in all directions" and the tissue of her neck being severed to the bone, although the heart was the sole body organ missing from this crime scene.[73] Historically, the belief these five canonical murders were committed by the same perpetrator is derived from contemporaneous documents which link them together to the exclusion of others.[74] In 1894, Sir Melville Macnaghten, Assistant Chief Constable of the Metropolitan Police Service and Head of the Criminal Investigation Department (CID), wrote a report that stated: "the Whitechapel murderer had 5 victims—& 5 victims only".[75] Similarly, the canonical five victims were linked together in a letter written by police surgeon Thomas Bond to Robert Anderson, head of the London CID, on 10 November 1888.[76] Some researchers have posited that some of the murders were undoubtedly the work of a single killer, but an unknown larger number of killers acting independently were responsible for the other crimes.[77] Authors Stewart P. Evans and Donald Rumbelow argue that the canonical five is a "Ripper myth" and that three cases (Nichols, Chapman, and Eddowes) can be definitely linked to the same perpetrator, but that less certainty exists as to whether Stride and Kelly were also murdered by the same individual.[78] Conversely, others suppose that the six murders between Tabram and Kelly were the work of a single killer.[17] Percy Clark, assistant to the examining pathologist George Bagster Phillips, linked only three of the murders and thought that the others were perpetrated by "weak-minded individual[s] ... induced to emulate the crime".[79] Macnaghten did not join the police force until the year after the murders, and his memorandum contains serious factual errors about possible suspects.[80] Later Whitechapel murders Mary Jane Kelly is generally considered to be the Ripper's final victim, and it is assumed that the crimes ended because of the culprit's death, imprisonment, institutionalisation, or emigration.[24][81] The Whitechapel murders file details another four murders that occurred after the canonical five: those of Rose Mylett, Alice McKenzie, the Pinchin Street torso, and Frances Coles.[26][82] The strangled body of 26-year-old Rose Mylett[83] was found in Clarke's Yard, High Street, Poplar on 20 December 1888.[84] There was no sign of a struggle, and the police believed that she had either accidentally hanged herself with her collar while in a drunken stupor or committed suicide.[85] However, faint markings left by a cord on one side of her neck suggested Mylett had been strangled.[86][87] At the inquest into Mylett's death, the jury returned a verdict of murder.[85] Alice McKenzie was murdered shortly after midnight on 17 July 1889 in Castle Alley, Whitechapel. She had suffered two stab wounds to her neck, and her left carotid artery had been severed. Several minor bruises and cuts were found on her body, which also bore a seven-inch long superficial wound extending from her left breast to her navel.[88] One of the examining pathologists, Thomas Bond, believed this to be a Ripper murder, though his colleague George Bagster Phillips, who had examined the bodies of three previous victims, disagreed.[89] Opinions among writers are also divided between those who suspect McKenzie's murderer copied the modus operandi of Jack the Ripper to deflect suspicion from himself,[90] and those who ascribe this murder to Jack the Ripper.[91] "The Pinchin Street torso" was a decomposing headless and legless torso of an unidentified woman aged between 30 and 40 discovered beneath a railway arch in Pinchin Street, Whitechapel, on 10 September 1889.[92] Bruising about the victim's back, hip, and arm indicated the decedent had been extensively beaten shortly before her death. The victim's abdomen was also extensively mutilated, although her genitals had not been wounded.[93] She appeared to have been killed approximately one day prior to the discovery of her torso.[94] The dismembered sections of the body are believed to have been transported to the railway arch, hidden under an old chemise.[95] Frances Coles was found with her throat cut under a railway arch in Whitechapel on 13 February 1891.[96] At 2:15 a.m. on 13 February 1891, PC Ernest Thompson discovered a 25-year-old prostitute named Frances Coles lying beneath a railway arch at Swallow Gardens, Whitechapel.[97] Her throat had been deeply cut but her body was not mutilated, leading some to believe Thompson had disturbed her assailant. Coles was still alive, although she died before medical help could arrive.[98] A 53-year-old stoker, James Thomas Sadler, had earlier been seen drinking with Coles,[99] and the two are known to have argued approximately three hours before her death. Sadler was arrested by the police and charged with her murder. He was briefly thought to be the Ripper,[100] but was later discharged from court for lack of evidence on 3 March 1891.[100] Other alleged victims In addition to the eleven Whitechapel murders, commentators have linked other attacks to the Ripper. In the case of "Fairy Fay", it is unclear whether this attack was real or fabricated as a part of Ripper lore.[101] "Fairy Fay" was a nickname given to an unidentified[102] woman whose body was allegedly found in a doorway close to Commercial Road on 26 December 1887[103] "after a stake had been thrust through her abdomen",[104][105] but there were no recorded murders in Whitechapel at or around Christmas 1887.[106] "Fairy Fay" seems to have been created through a confused press report of the murder of Emma Elizabeth Smith, who had a stick or other blunt object shoved into her vagin*.[107] Most authors agree that the victim "Fairy Fay" never existed.[101][102] A 38-year-old widow named Annie Millwood was admitted to the Whitechapel Workhouse Infirmary with numerous stab wounds to her legs and lower torso on 25 February 1888,[108] informing staff she had been attacked with a clasp knife by an unknown man.[109] She was later discharged, but died from apparently natural causes on 31 March.[102] Millwood was later postulated to be the Ripper's first victim, although this attack cannot be definitively linked to the perpetrator.[110] Another suspected precanonical victim was a young dressmaker named Ada Wilson,[111] who reportedly survived being stabbed twice in the neck with a clasp knife[112] upon the doorstep of her home in Bow on 28 March 1888 by a man who had demanded money from her.[113] A further possible victim, 40-year-old Annie Farmer, resided at the same lodging house as Martha Tabram[114] and reported an attack on 21 November 1888. She had received a superficial cut to her throat. Although an unknown man with blood on his mouth and hands had run out of this lodging house, shouting, "Look at what she has done!" before two eyewitnesses heard Farmer scream,[115] her wound was light, and possibly self-inflicted.[116][117] "The Whitehall Mystery" was a term coined for the discovery of a headless torso of a woman on 2 October 1888 in the basem*nt of the new Metropolitan Police headquarters being built in Whitehall. An arm and shoulder belonging to the body were previously discovered floating in the River Thames near Pimlico on 11 September, and the left leg was subsequently discovered buried near where the torso was found on 17 October.[118] The other limbs and head were never recovered and the body was never identified. The mutilations were similar to those in the Pinchin Street torso case, where the legs and head were severed but not the arms.[119] Drawing of three men discovering the torso of a woman "The Whitehall Mystery" of October 1888 Both the Whitehall Mystery and the Pinchin Street case may have been part of a series of murders known as the "Thames Mysteries", committed by a single serial killer dubbed the "Torso killer".[120] It is debatable whether Jack the Ripper and the "Torso killer" were the same person or separate serial killers active in the same area.[120] The modus operandi of the Torso killer differed from that of the Ripper, and police at the time discounted any connection between the two.[121] Only one of the four victims linked to the Torso killer, Elizabeth Jackson, was ever identified. Jackson was a 24-year-old prostitute from Chelsea whose various body parts were collected from the River Thames over a three-week period between 31 May and 25 June 1889.[122][123] On 29 December 1888, the body of a seven-year-old boy named John Gill was found in a stable block in Manningham, Bradford.[124] Gill had been missing since 27 December. His legs had been severed, his abdomen opened, his intestines partly drawn out, and his heart and one ear removed. Similarities with the Ripper murders led to press speculation that the Ripper had killed him.[125] The boy's employer, 23-year-old milkman William Barrett, was twice arrested for the murder but was released due to insufficient evidence.[125] No-one was ever prosecuted.[125] Carrie Brown (nicknamed "Shakespeare", reportedly for her habit of quoting Shakespeare's sonnets) was strangled with clothing and then mutilated with a knife on 24 April 1891 in New York City.[126] Her body was found with a large tear through her groin area and superficial cuts on her legs and back. No organs were removed from the scene, though an ovary was found upon the bed, either purposely removed or unintentionally dislodged.[126] At the time, the murder was compared to those in Whitechapel, though the Metropolitan Police eventually ruled out any connection.[126] Investigation Sketch of a whiskered man Inspector Frederick Abberline The vast majority of the City of London Police files relating to their investigation into the Whitechapel murders were destroyed in the Blitz.[127] The surviving Metropolitan Police files allow a detailed view of investigative procedures in the Victorian era.[128] A large team of policemen conducted house-to-house inquiries throughout Whitechapel. Forensic material was collected and examined. Suspects were identified, traced, and either examined more closely or eliminated from the inquiry. Modern police work follows the same pattern.[128] More than 2,000 people were interviewed, "upwards of 300" people were investigated, and 80 people were detained.[129] Following the murders of Stride and Eddowes, the Commissioner of the City Police, Sir James Fraser, offered a reward of £500 for the arrest of the Ripper.[130] The investigation was initially conducted by the Metropolitan Police Whitechapel (H) Division Criminal Investigation Department (CID) headed by Detective Inspector Edmund Reid. After the murder of Nichols, Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline, Henry Moore, and Walter Andrews were sent from Central Office at Scotland Yard to assist. The City of London Police were involved under Detective Inspector James McWilliam after the Eddowes murder, which occurred within the City of London.[131] The overall direction of the murder enquiries was hampered by the fact that the newly appointed head of the CID, Assistant Commissioner Robert Anderson, was on leave in Switzerland between 7 September and 6 October, during the time when Chapman, Stride, and Eddowes were killed.[132] This prompted Colonel Sir Charles Warren, the Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, to appoint Chief Inspector Donald Swanson to coordinate the enquiry from Scotland Yard.[133] Butchers, slaughterers, surgeons, and physicians were suspected because of the manner of the mutilations. A surviving note from Major Henry Smith, Acting Commissioner of the City Police, indicates that the alibis of local butchers and slaughterers were investigated, with the result that they were eliminated from the inquiry.[134] A report from Inspector Swanson to the Home Office confirms that 76 butchers and slaughterers were visited, and that the inquiry encompassed all their employees for the previous six months.[135] Some contemporaneous figures, including Queen Victoria, thought the pattern of the murders indicated that the culprit was a butcher or cattle drover on one of the cattle boats that plied between London and mainland Europe. Whitechapel was close to the London Docks,[136] and usually such boats docked on Thursday or Friday and departed on Saturday or Sunday.[137] The cattle boats were examined but the dates of the murders did not coincide with a single boat's movements and the transfer of a crewman between boats was also ruled out.[138] Drawing of a blind-folded policeman with arms outstretched in the midst of a bunch of ragamuffin ruffians "Blind man's buff": Punch cartoon by John Tenniel (22 September 1888) criticising the police's alleged incompetence. The failure of the police to capture the killer reinforced the attitude held by radicals that the police were inept and mismanaged.[139] Whitechapel Vigilance Committee In September 1888, a group of volunteer citizens in London's East End formed the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee. They patrolled the streets looking for suspicious characters, partly because of dissatisfaction with the failure of police to apprehend the perpetrator, and also because some members were concerned that the murders were affecting businesses in the area.[140] The Committee petitioned the government to raise a reward for information leading to the arrest of the killer, offered their own reward of £50 (the equivalent of between £5,900 and £86,000 in 2021)[141] for information leading to his capture,[142] and hired private detectives to question witnesses independently.[143] Criminal profiling At the end of October, Robert Anderson asked police surgeon Thomas Bond to give his opinion on the extent of the murderer's surgical skill and knowledge.[144] The opinion offered by Bond on the character of the "Whitechapel murderer" is the earliest surviving offender profile.[145] Bond's assessment was based on his own examination of the most extensively mutilated victim and the post mortem notes from the four previous canonical murders.[76] He wrote: All five murders no doubt were committed by the same hand. In the first four the throats appear to have been cut from left to right, in the last case owing to the extensive mutilation it is impossible to say in what direction the fatal cut was made, but arterial blood was found on the wall in splashes close to where the woman's head must have been lying. All the circ*mstances surrounding the murders lead me to form the opinion that the women must have been lying down when murdered and in every case the throat was first cut.[76] Bond was strongly opposed to the idea that the murderer possessed any kind of scientific or anatomical knowledge, or even "the technical knowledge of a butcher or horse slaughterer".[76] In his opinion, the killer must have been a man of solitary habits, subject to "periodical attacks of homicidal and erotic mania", with the character of the mutilations possibly indicating "satyriasis".[76] Bond also stated that "the homicidal impulse may have developed from a revengeful or brooding condition of the mind, or that religious mania may have been the original disease but I do not think either hypothesis is likely".[76] There is no evidence the perpetrator engaged in sexual activity with any of the victims,[17][146] yet psychologists suppose that the penetration of the victims with a knife and "leaving them on display in sexually degrading positions with the wounds exposed" indicates that the perpetrator derived sexual pleasure from the attacks.[17][147] This view is challenged by others, who dismiss such hypotheses as insupportable supposition.[148] In addition to the contradictions and unreliability of contemporaneous accounts, attempts to identify the murderer are hampered by the lack of any surviving forensic evidence.[149] DNA analysis on extant letters is inconclusive;[150] the available material has been handled many times and is too contaminated to provide meaningful results.[151] There have been mutually incompatible claims that DNA evidence points conclusively to two different suspects: Aaron Kosminski (a Whitechapel barber) and artist Walter Sickert. The scientific methodology used to advance both of these claims by their proponents has also been criticised.[152] Suspects Main article: Jack the Ripper suspects Cartoon of a man holding a bloody knife looking contemptuously at a display of half-a-dozen supposed and dissimilar likenesses Speculation as to the identity of Jack the Ripper: cover of the 21 September 1889 issue of Puck magazine, by cartoonist Tom Merry The concentration of the killings around weekends and public holidays and within a short distance of each other has indicated to many that the Ripper was in regular employment and lived locally.[153] Others have opined that the killer was an educated upper-class man, possibly a doctor or an aristocrat who ventured into Whitechapel from a more well-to-do area.[154] Such theories draw on cultural perceptions such as fear of the medical profession, a mistrust of modern science, or the exploitation of the poor by the rich.[155] The term "Ripperology" was coined to describe the study and analysis of the Ripper case in an effort to determine his identity, and the murders have inspired numerous works of fiction.[156] Suspects proposed years after the murders include virtually anyone remotely connected to the case by contemporaneous documents, as well as many famous names who were never considered in the police investigation, including Prince Albert Victor,[157] artist Walter Sickert, and author Lewis Carroll.[158] Everyone alive at the time is now long dead, and modern authors are free to accuse anyone "without any need for any supporting historical evidence".[159] Suspects named in contemporaneous police documents include three in Sir Melville Macnaghten's 1894 memorandum, but the evidence against each of these individuals is, at best, circ*mstantial.[160] There are many, varied theories about the actual identity and profession of Jack the Ripper, but authorities are not agreed upon any of them, and the number of named suspects reaches over one hundred.[161][162] Despite continued interest in the case, the Ripper's identity remains unknown.[163] Letters Jack the Ripper letters "Dear Boss" letter "Saucy Jacky" postcard "From Hell" letter Openshaw letter vte Over the course of the Whitechapel murders, the police, newspapers, and other individuals received hundreds of letters regarding the case.[164] Some letters were well-intentioned offers of advice as to how to catch the killer, but the vast majority were either hoaxes or generally useless.[165][166] Hundreds of letters claimed to have been written by the killer himself,[167] and three of these in particular are prominent: the "Dear Boss" letter, the "Saucy Jacky" postcard and the "From Hell" letter.[168] The "Dear Boss" letter, dated 25 September and postmarked 27 September 1888, was received that day by the Central News Agency, and was forwarded to Scotland Yard on 29 September.[169] Initially, it was considered a hoax, but when Eddowes was found three days after the letter's postmark with a section of one ear obliquely cut from her body, the promise of the author to "clip the ladys (sic) ears off" gained attention.[170] Eddowes's ear appears to have been nicked by the killer incidentally during his attack, and the letter writer's threat to send the ears to the police was never carried out.[171] The name "Jack the Ripper" was first used in this letter by the signatory and gained worldwide notoriety after its publication.[172] Most of the letters that followed copied this letter's tone,[173] with some authors adopting pseudonyms such as "George of the High Rip Gang"[174] and "Jack Sheridan, the Ripper."[175] Some sources claim that another letter dated 17 September 1888 was the first to use the name "Jack the Ripper",[176] but most experts believe that this was a fake inserted into police records in the 20th century.[177] Scrawled and misspelled note reading: From hell—Mr Lusk—Sir I send you half the kidne I took from one woman prasarved it for you tother piece I fried and ate it was very nise I may send you the bloody knif that took it out if you only wate a whil longer—Signed Catch me when you can Mishter Lusk The "From Hell" letter The "Saucy Jacky" postcard was postmarked 1 October 1888 and was received the same day by the Central News Agency. The handwriting was similar to the "Dear Boss" letter,[178] and mentioned the canonical murders committed on 30 September, which the author refers to by writing "double event this time".[179] It has been argued that the postcard was posted before the murders were publicised, making it unlikely that a crank would hold such knowledge of the crime.[180] However, it was postmarked more than 24 hours after the killings occurred, long after details of the murders were known and publicised by journalists, and had become general community gossip by the residents of Whitechapel.[179][181] The "From Hell" letter was received by George Lusk, leader of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee, on 16 October 1888.[182] The handwriting and style is unlike that of the "Dear Boss" letter and "Saucy Jacky" postcard.[183] The letter came with a small box in which Lusk discovered half of a human kidney, preserved in "spirits of wine" (ethanol).[183] Eddowes's left kidney had been removed by the killer. The writer claimed that he "fried and ate" the missing kidney half. There is disagreement over the kidney; some contend that it belonged to Eddowes, while others argue that it was a macabre practical joke.[184][185] The kidney was examined by Thomas Openshaw of the London Hospital, who determined that it was human and from the left side, but (contrary to false newspaper reports) he could not determine any other biological characteristics.[186] Openshaw subsequently also received a letter signed "Jack the Ripper".[187] Scotland Yard published facsimiles of the "Dear Boss" letter and the postcard on 3 October, in the ultimately vain hope that a member of the public would recognise the handwriting.[188] Charles Warren explained in a letter to Godfrey Lushington, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department: "I think the whole thing a hoax but of course we are bound to try & ascertain the writer in any case."[189] On 7 October 1888, George R. Sims in the Sunday newspaper Referee implied scathingly that the letter was written by a journalist "to hurl the circulation of a newspaper sky high".[190] Police officials later claimed to have identified a specific journalist as the author of both the "Dear Boss" letter and the postcard.[191] The journalist was identified as Tom Bullen in a letter from Chief Inspector John Littlechild to George R. Sims dated 23 September 1913.[192][n 1] A journalist named Fred Best reportedly confessed in 1931 that he and a colleague at The Star had written the letters signed "Jack the Ripper" to heighten interest in the murders and "keep the business alive".[195] Media 8 September 1888 edition of the Penny Illustrated Paper depicting the discovery of the body of the first canonical Ripper victim, Mary Ann Nichols The Ripper murders mark an important watershed in the treatment of crime by journalists.[24][196] Jack the Ripper was not the first serial killer, but his case was the first to create a worldwide media frenzy.[24][196] The Elementary Education Act 1880 (which had extended upon a previous Act) made school attendance compulsory regardless of class. As such, by 1888, more working-class people in England and Wales were literate.[197] Tax reforms in the 1850s had enabled the publication of inexpensive newspapers with a wider circulation.[198] These mushroomed in the later Victorian era to include mass-circulation newspapers costing as little as a halfpenny, along with popular magazines such as The Illustrated Police News which made the Ripper the beneficiary of previously unparalleled publicity.[199] Consequently, at the height of the investigation, over one million copies[200] of newspapers with extensive coverage devoted to the Whitechapel murders were sold each day.[201] However, many of the articles were sensationalistic and speculative, and false information was regularly printed as fact.[202] In addition, several articles speculating as to the identity of the Ripper alluded to local xenophobic rumours that the perpetrator was either Jewish or foreign.[203][204] In early September, six days after the murder of Mary Ann Nichols, The Manchester Guardian reported: "Whatever information may be in the possession of the police they deem it necessary to keep secret ... It is believed their attention is particularly directed to ... a notorious character known as 'Leather Apron'."[205] Journalists were frustrated by the unwillingness of the CID to reveal details of their investigation to the public, and so resorted to writing reports of questionable veracity.[24][206] Imaginative descriptions of "Leather Apron" appeared in the press,[207] but rival journalists dismissed these as "a mythical outgrowth of the reporter's fancy".[208] John Pizer, a local Jew who made footwear from leather, was known by the name "Leather Apron"[209] and was arrested, even though the investigating inspector reported that "at present there is no evidence whatsoever against him".[210] He was soon released after the confirmation of his alibis.[209] After the publication of the "Dear Boss" letter, "Jack the Ripper" supplanted "Leather Apron" as the name adopted by the press and public to describe the killer.[211] The name "Jack" was already used to describe another fabled London attacker: "Spring-heeled Jack", who supposedly leapt over walls to strike at his victims and escape as quickly as he came.[212] The invention and adoption of a nickname for a particular killer became standard media practice with examples such as the Axeman of New Orleans, the Boston Strangler, and the Beltway Sniper. Examples derived from Jack the Ripper include the French Ripper, the Düsseldorf Ripper, the Camden Ripper, the Blackout Ripper, Jack the Stripper, the Yorkshire Ripper, and the Rostov Ripper. Sensational press reports combined with the fact that no one was ever convicted of the murders have confused scholarly analysis and created a legend that casts a shadow over later serial killers.[213] Legacy A phantom brandishing a knife floats through a slum street The 'Nemesis of Neglect': Jack the Ripper depicted as a phantom stalking Whitechapel, and as an embodiment of social neglect, in a Punch cartoon of 1888 The nature of the Ripper murders and the impoverished lifestyle of the victims[214] drew attention to the poor living conditions in the East End[215] and galvanised public opinion against the overcrowded, insanitary slums.[216] In the two decades after the murders, the worst of the slums were cleared and demolished,[217] but the streets and some buildings survive, and the legend of the Ripper is still promoted by various guided tours of the murder sites and other locations pertaining to the case.[218] For many years, the Ten Bells public house in Commercial Street (which had been frequented by at least one of the canonical Ripper victims) was the focus of such tours.[219] In the immediate aftermath of the murders and later, "Jack the Ripper became the children's bogey man."[220] Depictions were often phantasmic or monstrous. In the 1920s and 1930s, he was depicted in film dressed in everyday clothes as a man with a hidden secret, preying on his unsuspecting victims; atmosphere and evil were suggested through lighting effects and shadowplay.[221] By the 1960s, the Ripper had become "the symbol of a predatory aristocracy",[221] and was more often portrayed in a top hat dressed as a gentleman. The Establishment as a whole became the villain, with the Ripper acting as a manifestation of upper-class exploitation.[222] The image of the Ripper merged with or borrowed symbols from horror stories, such as Dracula's cloak or Victor Frankenstein's organ harvest.[223] The fictional world of the Ripper can fuse with multiple genres, ranging from Sherlock Holmes to Japanese erotic horror.[224] Jack the Ripper features in hundreds of works of fiction and works which straddle the boundaries between fact and fiction, including the Ripper letters and a hoax diary: The Diary of Jack the Ripper.[225] The Ripper appears in novels, short stories, poems, comic books, games, songs, plays, operas, television programmes, and films. More than 100 non-fiction works deal exclusively with the Jack the Ripper murders, making this case one of the most written-about in the true-crime genre.[161] The term "ripperology" was coined by Colin Wilson in the 1970s to describe the study of the case by professionals and amateurs.[226][227] The periodicals Ripperana, Ripperologist, and Ripper Notes publish their research.[228] In 2006, a BBC History magazine poll selected Jack the Ripper as the worst Briton in history.[229][230] In 2015, the Jack the Ripper Museum opened in east London. It attracted criticism from both Tower Hamlets mayor John Biggs[231] and protestors.[232] Similar protests occurred in 2021 when the second of two "Jack The Chipper" fish and chip shops opened in Greenwich, with some patrons threatening to boycott the premises.[233] See also icon London portal History portal Jack the Ripper in fiction List of fugitives from justice who disappeared List of murderers by number of victims List of serial killers before 1900 List of serial killers in the United Kingdom Notes The full name of this individual is believed to be Thomas J. Bulling.[193][194] References Serial Killers: True Crime ISBN 978-0-7835-0001-0 p. 93 Kershen, Anne J., "The Immigrant Community of Whitechapel at the Time of the Jack the Ripper Murders", in Werner, pp. 65–97; Vaughan, Laura, "Mapping the East End Labyrinth", in Werner, p. 225 Honeycombe, The Murders of the Black Museum: 1870-1970, p. 54 Life and Labour of the People in London (London: Macmillan, 1902–1903) Archived 3 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine (The Charles Booth on-line archive) retrieved 5 August 2008 London, Novels and Social Writings, p. 147 "Jack the Ripper: Why Does a Serial Killer Who Disembowelled Women Deserve a Museum?". The Telegraph. 30 July 2015. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2020. Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 1; Police report dated 25 October 1888, MEPO 3/141 ff. 158–163, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 283; Fido, p. 82; Rumbelow, p. 12 Rumbelow, p. 14 Rumbelow, Jack the Ripper: The Complete Casebook, p. 30 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 131–149; Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 38–42; Rumbelow, pp. 21–22 Marriott, John, "The Imaginative Geography of the Whitechapel murders", in Werner, pp. 31–63 Haggard, Robert F. (1993), "Jack the Ripper As the Threat of Outcast London", Essays in History, vol. 35, Corcoran Department of History at the University of Virginia Woods and Baddeley, p. 20 The Crimes, London Metropolitan Police, archived from the original on 29 January 2017, retrieved 1 October 2014 Cook, pp. 33–34; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 3 Cook, p. 151 Keppel, Robert D.; Weis, Joseph G.; Brown, Katherine M.; Welch, Kristen (2005), "The Jack the Ripper murders: a modus operandi and signature analysis of the 1888–1891 Whitechapel murders", Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 2 (1): 1–21, doi:10.1002/jip.22 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 47–55 "Locality of the Whitechapel Women-Murders". Reynold's News. 11 November 1888. Retrieved 4 June 2023. 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Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 29–31; Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 47–50; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 5–7 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 35 Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History ISBN 0-582-50631-X p. 63 The Crimes, Detection and Death of Jack the Ripper ISBN 978-1-566-19537-9 p. 17 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 51–55 Waddell, p. 75 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 51–55; Marriott, Trevor, p. 13 3000 Facts about Historic Figures ISBN 978-0-244-67383-3 p. 171 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 43 Whittington-Egan, The Murder Almanac, p. 91 "Old Wounds: Re-examining the Buck's Row Murder". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 4 September 2020. "Another Horrible Tragedy in Whitechapel". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 2 September 2020. Eddleston, p. 21; Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 60–61; Rumbelow, pp. 24–27 Rumbelow, p. 42 Honeycombe, The Murders of the Black Museum: 1870-1970, pp. 55-56 Jack the Ripper – Through the Mists of Time ISBN 978-1-782-28168-9 p. 21 Marriott, Trevor, pp. 26–29; Rumbelow, p. 42 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 76 Jack the Ripper ISBN 978-0-760-78716-8 p. 36 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 153; Cook, p. 163; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 98; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 59–75 Holmes, Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool, p. 233 Naming Jack the Ripper: New Crime Scene Evidence, A Stunning Forensic Breakthrough ISBN 978-1-447-26423-1 p. 60 Cook, p. 157; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 81–125 Wilson et al., p. 38 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 176–184 "The Whitechapel Murders: Rewards Offered". Birmingham Daily Post. 2 October 1888. Retrieved 12 October 2021. Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 177 Foul Deeds and Suspicious Deaths in London's East End ISBN 978-1-845-63001-0 p. 88 Jack the Ripper – Through the Mists of Time ISBN 978-1-782-28168-9 p. 27 "Catherine Eddowes a.k.a. Kate Kelly". casebook.org. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2020. Medical report in Coroner's Inquests, no. 135, Corporation of London Records, quoted in Evans and Skinner, pp. 205–207 and Fido, pp. 70–74 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 171 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 193–194; Chief Inspector Swanson's report, 6 November 1888, HO 144/221/A49301C, quoted in Evans and Skinner, pp. 185–188 e.g. Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 30; Rumbelow, p. 118 Ripper Notes: The Legend Continues ISBN 978-0-978-91122-5 p. 35 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 179 Eddleston, p. 171 Cook, p. 143; Fido, pp. 47–52; Sugden, p. 254 Letter from Charles Warren to Godfrey Lushington, Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 6 November 1888, HO 144/221/A49301C, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 183–184 "The Whitechapel Murders: A Startling Discovery". The Lancaster Gazette. 13 October 1888. Retrieved 26 May 2022. "The Seventh Murder in Whitechapel: A Story of Unparalleled Atrocity". The Pall Mall Gazette. 10 November 1888. Retrieved 22 March 2022. Foul Deeds and Suspicious Deaths in London's East End ISBN 978-1-781-59662-3 p. 95 Holmes, Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool, p. 239 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, pp. 292–293 Thomas Bond "notes of examination of body of woman found murdered & mutilated in Dorset Street" MEPO 3/3153 ff. 12–14, quoted in Sugden, pp. 315, 319 Eddleston, p. 63 e.g. Daily Telegraph, 10 November 1888, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 339–340 Macnaghten's notes quoted by Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 584–587; Fido, p. 98 Eddleston, p. 70 Cook, p. 151; Woods and Baddeley, p. 85 Macnaghten's notes quoted by Cook, p. 151; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 584–587 and Rumbelow, p. 140 Letter from Thomas Bond to Robert Anderson, 10 November 1888, HO 144/221/A49301C, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 360–362 and Rumbelow, pp. 145–147 e.g. Cook, pp. 156–159, 199 Evans and Rumbelow, p. 260 Interview in the East London Observer, 14 May 1910, quoted in Cook, pp. 179–180 and Evans and Rumbelow, p. 239 Marriott, Trevor, pp. 231–234; Rumbelow, p. 157 "The Whitechapel Murders: The Belief that the Perpetrator of the Crimes is Now Dead". 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Michael (2002), The Thames Torso Murders of Victorian London, Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, ISBN 978-0-7864-1348-5 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 210–213 "Elizabeth Jackson". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021. Gordon, R. Michael (2003), The American Murders of Jack the Ripper, Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Publishing, ISBN 978-0-275-98155-6, pp. xxii, 190 "Unsettling Tale of Murder in Victorian Bradford". Telegraph and Argus. 21 November 2017. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2020. Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 136 Vanderlinden, Wolf (2003–04). "The New York Affair", in Ripper Notes part one No. 16 (July 2003); part two No. 17 (January 2004), part three No. 19 (July 2004 ISBN 0-9759129-0-9) "Home: Introduction to the Case". casebook.org. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2020. Canter, David (1994). Criminal Shadows: Inside the Mind of the Serial Killer. London, England: HarperCollins. pp. 12–13. ISBN 0-00-255215-9. Inspector Donald Swanson's report to the Home Office, 19 October 1888, HO 144/221/A49301C, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 205; Evans and Rumbelow, p. 113; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 125 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 184 The Enduring Mystery of Jack the Ripper, London Metropolitan Police, archived from the original on 4 February 2010, retrieved 31 January 2010 Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 675 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 205; Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 84–85 Rumbelow, p. 274 Inspector Donald Swanson's report to the Home Office, 19 October 1888, HO 144/221/A49301C, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 206 and Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 125 Marriott, John, "The Imaginative Geography of the Whitechapel murders", in Werner, p. 48 Rumbelow, p. 93; Daily Telegraph, 10 November 1888, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 341 Robert Anderson to Home Office, 10 January 1889, 144/221/A49301C ff. 235–6, quoted in Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 399 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 57 Jack the Ripper – Through the Mists of Time ISBN 978-1-782-28168-9 p. 22 Officer, Lawrence H.; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023), Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1270 to Present, MeasuringWorth, retrieved 19 February 2023 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Facts, p. 128 e.g. Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 245–252 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 186–187; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 359–360 Canter, pp. 5–6 Woods and Baddeley, p. 38 See also later contemporary editions of Richard von Krafft-Ebing's Psychopathia Sexualis, quoted in Woods and Baddeley, p. 111 Evans and Rumbelow, pp. 187–188, 261; Woods and Baddeley, pp. 121–122 Cook, p. 31 Marks, Kathy (18 May 2006). "Was Jack the Ripper a Woman?" Archived 12 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Independent, retrieved 5 May 2009 Meikle, p. 197; Rumbelow, p. 246 Connor, Steven (7 September 2014), "Jack the Ripper: Has Notorious Serial Killer's Identity Been Revealed by New DNA Evidence?", The Independent, archived from the original on 12 July 2020, retrieved 1 September 2017 Marriott, Trevor, p. 205; Rumbelow, p. 263; Sugden, p. 266 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 43 Woods and Baddeley, pp. 111–114 "So You Want to Be a "Ripperologist"?". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Retrieved 25 October 2021. "7 People Suspected of Being Jack the Ripper". history.com. 16 July 2015. Archived from the original on 14 October 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020. "Casebook: Jack the Ripper: Lewis Carroll". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Retrieved 9 November 2022. Evans and Rumbelow, p. 261 e.g. Frederick Abberline in the Pall Mall Gazette, 31 March 1903, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 264 Whiteway, Ken (2004). "A Guide to the Literature of Jack the Ripper", Canadian Law Library Review, vol. 29 pp. 219–229 Eddleston, pp. 195–244 Whittington-Egan, pp. 91–92 Donald McCormick estimated "probably at least 2000" (quoted in Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 180). The Illustrated Police News of 20 October 1888 said that around 700 letters had been investigated by police (quoted in Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 199). Over 300 are preserved at the Corporation of London Records Office (Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 149). Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 165; Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 105; Rumbelow, pp. 105–116 "Letters to Police, Signed "Jack the Ripper," are Practical Jokes". The Yorkshire Herald. 8 October 1888. Retrieved 5 August 2021. Over 200 are preserved at the Public Record Office (Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 8, 180). Fido, pp. 6–10; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 219 ff. Cook, pp. 76–77; Evans and Rumbelow, p. 137; Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 16–18; Woods and Baddeley, pp. 48–49 Cook, pp. 78–79; Marriott, Trevor, p. 221 Cook, p. 79; Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 179; Marriott, Trevor, p. 221 Cook, pp. 77–78; Evans and Rumbelow, p. 140; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 193; Fido, p. 7 Cook, p. 87; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 652 "The Whitechapel Horrors: An Exciting Week". casebook.org. 2 April 2004. Retrieved 8 November 2021. "The Whitechapel Murder: The Inquest". The Leeds Mercury. 13 November 1888. Retrieved 22 June 2022. Eddleston, p. 155; Marriott, Trevor, p. 223 Marriott, Trevor, p. 223 Marriott, Trevor, pp. 219–222 Cook, pp. 79–80; Fido, pp. 8–9; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 219–222; Rumbelow, p. 123 e.g. Cullen, Tom (1965), Autumn of Terror, London: The Bodley Head, p. 103 Sugden p.269 "The Whitechapel Murders". The Kiama Independent and Shoalhaven Advertiser. 20 November 1888. Retrieved 18 November 2021. Evans and Rumbelow, p. 170; Fido, pp. 78–80 The Hype and the Press Speculation, London Metropolitan Police, archived from the original on 29 January 2017, retrieved 1 October 2014 Wolf, Gunter (2008), "A kidney from hell? A nephrological view of the Whitechapel murders in 1888", Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 23 (10): 3343–3349, doi:10.1093/ndt/gfn198, PMID 18408073 Cook, p. 146; Fido, p. 78 Jack the Ripper 'Letter' Made Public Archived 1 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 19 April 2001, retrieved 2 January 2010 Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 32–33 Letter from Charles Warren to Godfrey Lushington, 10 October 1888, Metropolitan Police Archive MEPO 1/48, quoted in Cook, p. 78; Evans and Rumbelow, p. 140 and Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 43 Quoted in Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 41, 52 and Woods and Baddeley, p. 54 Cook, pp. 94–95; Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters From Hell, pp. 45–48; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, pp. 624–633; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 219–222; Rumbelow, pp. 121–122 Quoted in Cook, pp. 96–97; Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, p. 49; Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 193; and Marriott, Trevor, p. 254 "A Look at Some of the Known Letter Writers". jack-the-ripper.org. 2 April 2010. Retrieved 5 August 2023. Westcott, Thomas C. (2 April 2004). "Thomas Bulling and the Myth of the London Journalist". casebook.org. Retrieved 5 August 2023. Professor Francis E. Camps, August 1966, "More on Jack the Ripper", Crime and Detection, quoted in Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 51–52 Woods and Baddeley, pp. 20, 52 "Education in England: A History". educationengland.org.uk. 1 June 1998. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 14 September 2020. Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 208 Curtis, L. Perry, Jr. (2001). Jack the Ripper and the London Press. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08872-8 "Jack the Ripper". psychologytoday.com. 27 January 2004. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2020. "Murderers Who Haunt the Screen". Borehamwood & Elstree Times. 30 November 2006. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2020. "Horror Upon Horror. Whitechapel is Panic-stricken at Another Fiendish Crime. A Fourth Victim of the Maniac". casebook.org. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2020. "John Pizer". casebook.org. 1 January 2010. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2020. Ignacio Peyro (29 October 2018). "Who Was Jack the Ripper?". nationalgeographic.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2020. Manchester Guardian, 6 September 1888, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 98 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 214 e.g. Manchester Guardian, 10 September 1888, and Austin Statesman, 5 September 1888, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 98–99; The Star, 5 September 1888, quoted in Evans and Rumbelow, p. 80 Leytonstone Express and Independent, 8 September 1888, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 99 e.g. Marriott, Trevor, p. 251; Rumbelow, p. 49 Report by Inspector Joseph Helson, CID 'J' Division, in the Metropolitan Police archive, MEPO 3/140 ff. 235–8, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 99 and Evans and Skinner, The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook, p. 24 Evans and Skinner, Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell, pp. 13, 86; Fido, p. 7 Ackroyd, Peter, "Introduction", in Werner, p. 10; Rivett and Whitehead, p. 11 Marriott, John, "The Imaginative Geography of the Whitechapel murders", in Werner, p. 54 "The Whitechapel Murders". Western Mail. 17 November 1888. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020. Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, pp. 1–2; Rivett and Whitehead, p. 15 Cook, pp. 139–141; Vaughan, Laura, "Mapping the East End Labyrinth", in Werner, pp. 236–237 Dennis, Richard, "Common Lodgings and 'Furnished Rooms': Housing in 1880s Whitechapel", in Werner, pp. 177–179 Rumbelow, p. xv; Woods and Baddeley, p. 136 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 19 Dew, Walter (1938). I Caught Crippen. London: Blackie and Son. p. 126, quoted in Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 198 Bloom, Clive, "Jack the Ripper – A Legacy in Pictures", in Werner, p. 251 Woods and Baddeley, p. 150 Bloom, Clive, "Jack the Ripper – A Legacy in Pictures", in Werner, pp. 252–253 Bloom, Clive, "Jack the Ripper – A Legacy in Pictures", in Werner, pp. 255–260 Begg, Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History, p. 299; Marriott, Trevor, pp. 272–277; Rumbelow, pp. 251–253 Woods and Baddeley, pp. 70, 124 Evans, Stewart P. (April 2003). "Ripperology, A Term Coined By ...", Ripper Notes, copies at Wayback and Casebook Archived 16 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Creaton, Heather (April 2003), "Recent Scholarship on Jack the Ripper and the Victorian Media", Reviews in History (333), archived from the original on 28 September 2006, retrieved 20 June 2018 "Jack the Ripper is 'Worst Briton'" Archived 3 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine, 31 January 2006, BBC, retrieved 4 December 2009 Woods and Baddeley, p. 176 Khomami, Nadia (5 August 2015). "Jack the Ripper Museum Architect Says He was 'Duped' Over Change of Plans". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 November 2020. Brooke, Mike (6 November 2017). "Jack the Ripper Museum Besieged by Women Protesters in Cable Street Again". East London Advertiser. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 20 November 2020. Bennett-Ness, Jamie (17 August 2021). "Locals Boycott Greenwich Chippy Named 'Jack the Chipper'". News Shopper. Retrieved 19 August 2021. Sources Begg, Paul (2003). Jack the Ripper: The Definitive History. London: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-50631-X Begg, Paul (2004). Jack the Ripper: The Facts. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-760-77121-1 Bell, Neil R. A. (2016). Capturing Jack the Ripper: In the Boots of a Bobby in Victorian England. Stroud: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-445-62162-3 Cook, Andrew (2009). Jack the Ripper. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84868-327-3 Curtis, Lewis Perry (2001). Jack The Ripper & The London Press. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08872-8 Eddleston, John J. (2002). Jack the Ripper: An Encyclopedia. London: Metro Books. ISBN 1-84358-046-2 Evans, Stewart P.; Rumbelow, Donald (2006). Jack the Ripper: Scotland Yard Investigates. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-4228-2 Evans, Stewart P.; Skinner, Keith (2000). The Ultimate Jack the Ripper Sourcebook: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Constable and Robinson. ISBN 1-84119-225-2 Evans, Stewart P.; Skinner, Keith (2001). Jack the Ripper: Letters from Hell. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-2549-3 Fido, Martin (1987), The Crimes, Detection and Death of Jack the Ripper, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 0-297-79136-2 Gordon, R. Michael (2000). Alias Jack the Ripper: Beyond the Usual Whitechapel Suspects. North Carolina: McFarland Publishing. ISBN 978-0-786-40898-6 Holmes, Ronald M.; Holmes, Stephen T. (2002). Profiling Violent Crimes: An Investigative Tool. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-7619-2594-5 Honeycombe, Gordon (1982), The Murders of the Black Museum: 1870–1970, London: Bloomsbury Books, ISBN 978-0-863-79040-9 London, Jack (1984). Novels and Social Writings. Cambridgeshire: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26213-2 Lynch, Terry; Davies, David (2008). Jack the Ripper: The Whitechapel Murderer. Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-840-22077-3 Marriott, Trevor (2005). Jack the Ripper: The 21st Century Investigation. London: John Blake. ISBN 1-84454-103-7 Meikle, Denis (2002). Jack the Ripper: The Murders and the Movies. Richmond, Surrey: Reynolds and Hearn Ltd. ISBN 1-903111-32-3 Rivett, Miriam; Whitehead, Mark (2006). Jack the Ripper. Harpenden, Hertfordshire: Pocket Essentials. ISBN 978-1-904048-69-5 Rumbelow, Donald (1990). Jack the Ripper. The Complete Casebook. New York City: Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-11869-6 Rumbelow, Donald (2004). The Complete Jack the Ripper. Fully Revised and Updated. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-017395-6 Sugden, Philip (2002). The Complete History of Jack the Ripper. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-0276-1 Thurgood, Peter (2013). Abberline: The Man Who Hunted Jack the Ripper. Cheltenham: The History Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-752-48810-3 Waddell, Bill (1993). The Black Museum: New Scotland Yard. London: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-90332-5 Werner, Alex (editor, 2008). Jack the Ripper and the East End. London: Chatto & Windus. ISBN 978-0-7011-8247-2 Whittington-Egan, Richard; Whittington-Egan, Molly (1992). The Murder Almanac. Glasgow: Neil Wilson Publishing. ISBN 978-1-897-78404-4 Whittington-Egan, Richard (2013). Jack the Ripper: The Definitive Casebook. Stroud: Amberley Publishing. ISBN 978-1-445-61768-8 Wilson, Colin; Odell, Robin; Gaute, J. H. H. (1988). Jack the Ripper: Summing up and Verdict. London: Corgi Publishing. ISBN 978-0-552-12858-2 Woods, Paul; Baddeley, Gavin (2009). Saucy Jack: The Elusive Ripper. Hersham, Surrey: Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7110-3410-5 External links Listen to this article (39 minutes) Duration: 38 minutes and 37 seconds.38:37Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 5 March 2011, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jack the Ripper. Wikiquote has quotations related to Jack the Ripper. Wikisource has original works by or about: Jack the Ripper Jack the Ripper at casebook.org Home page of jack-the-ripper.org Jack the Ripper: The 1888 Autumn of Terror at whitechapeljack.com Contemporaneous news article pertaining to the murders committed by Jack the Ripper 1988 centennial investigation into the murders committed by Jack the Ripper compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation 2014 news article focusing upon modern geographic profiling techniques used to discover the most likely location Jack the Ripper lived Letters claiming to be from Jack the Ripper at nationalarchives.gov.uk Jack the Ripper at the Encyclopædia Britannica Article focusing upon the murders committed by Jack the Ripper published by the Texas State University vte Jack the Ripper Canonical victims Annie ChapmanCatherine EddowesMary Jane KellyMary Ann NicholsElizabeth Stride Police Frederick AbberlineRobert AndersonWalter AndrewsThomas ArnoldWalter DewGeorge GodleyMelville MacnaghtenHenry MooreEdmund ReidDonald SwansonCharles WarrenAdolphus Williamson Doctors and coroners Wynne Edwin BaxterThomas BondRoderick MacdonaldThomas Horrocks OpenshawGeorge Bagster Phillips Witnesses George HutchinsonJoseph LawendeCharles Allen LechmereIsrael Schwartz Letters and clues Dear Boss letterSaucy Jacky postcardFrom Hell letterOpenshaw letterGoulston Street graffito Locations Buck's RowDorset StreetFlower and Dean StreetHanbury StreetMitre SquareTen Bells Related George LuskWhitechapel Vigilance CommitteeConspiracy theoriesFictionSuspectsJack the Ripper MuseumWhitechapel murders Category vte Jack the Ripper in fiction Seminal works The LodgerJack the Ripper: The Final Solution Letters "Dear Boss" letter"From Hell" letter"Saucy Jacky" postcard Film Waxworks (1924)The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1927)Pandora's Box (1929)The Lodger (1932)The Lodger (1944)Room to Let (1950)Man in the Attic (1953)Jack the Ripper (1959)Lulu (1962)A Study in Terror (1965)Hands of the Ripper (1971)Dr. Jekyll and Sister Hyde (1971)The Ruling Class (1972)What the Swedish Butler Saw (1975)Jack the Ripper (1976)Murder by Decree (1979)Time After Time (1979)Jack's Back (1988)Edge of Sanity (1989)Deadly Advice (1994)Ripper (2001)From Hell (2001)Bad Karma (2002)Case Closed: The Phantom of Baker Street (2002)Ripper 2: Letter from Within (2004)The Lodger (2009)Holmes & Watson. Madrid Days (2012)Batman: Gotham by Gaslight (2018) Parody Bizarre, Bizarre (1937)The Phantom Raspberry Blower of Old London Town (1976)Amazon Women on the Moon (1987) Music "Jack the Ripper" (1963)"The Ripper" (1976)"Killer on the Loose" (1980)The Somatic Defilement (2007)Jack the Ripper vs. Hannibal Lecter (2014) Stage Earth Spirit (1895 play)Pandora's Box (1904 play)Lulu (1937 opera)The Lodger (1960 opera)The Ruling Class (1968 play) Comics Blood of the Innocent (1985)Gotham by Gaslight (1989)From Hell (1989–98)Wonder Woman: Amazonia (1997)The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume III: Century (2009) Literature Sherlock Holmes The Last Sherlock Holmes Story (1978)The Whitechapel Horrors (1992)Sherlock Holmes: The Unauthorized Biography (2005)Dust and Shadow (2009)The Ripper Legacy (2016) Short stories "A Toy for Juliette" (1967)"The Prowler in the City at the Edge of the World" (1967) Other A Feast Unknown (1969)Time After Time (1979)Night of the Ripper (1984)Phantom Blood (1987)Naomi's Room (1991)Anno Dracula (1992)A Night in the Lonesome October (1993)Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend (1996)Matrix (1998)Lost (2001)Portrait of a Killer: Jack the Ripper—Case Closed (2002)Blood and Fog (2003)The Witches of Chiswick (2003)Broken (2006)Darkside (2007)Lifeblood (2007)Dracula the Un-dead (2009)I, Ripper (2015)The Cutthroat (2017) Television Series Jack the Ripper (1973)Jack the Ripper (1988)Sanctuary (2007–11)Whitechapel (2009–13)Ripper Street (2012–17)Time After Time (2017)Case File nº221: Kabukicho (2019–20)Sherlock in Russia (2020)Beforeigners (2019–present) Episodes "Wolf in the Fold" (1967)"Comes the Inquisitor" (1995)"Ripper" (1999)"Sanctuary for All" (2008)"The Great British Fake Off" (2020) Other Bridge Across Time (1985 TV film) Video games Jack the Ripper (1987)The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes (1992)Ripper (1996)Duke Nukem: Zero Hour (1999)Shadow Man (1999)MediEvil 2 (2000)Jack the Ripper (2004)Sherlock Holmes Versus Jack the Ripper (2009)The Ripper (canceled)The Order: 1886 (2015)Assassin's Creed Syndicate: Jack the Ripper (2015)Dance of Death: Du Lac & Fey (2019) Other Casebook: Jack the RipperBlood!: The Life and Future Times of Jack the Ripper Category Authority control databases Edit this at Wikidata International FASTISNIVIAFWorldCat National FranceBnF dataGermanyIsraelUnited StatesCzech RepublicAustraliaNetherlands People Deutsche BiographieTrove Other IdRef Categories: Jack the Ripper1888 in London19th-century English criminalsEnglish serial killersHistory of the City of LondonHistory of the City of London PoliceHistory of the London Borough of Tower HamletsHistory of the Metropolitan PoliceLondon crime historyMurder in LondonNicknames in crimePeople of the Victorian eraUnidentified British serial killersWhitechapel 1888 Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools Appearance hide Text Small Standard Large Width Standard Wide Color (beta) Automatic Light Dark Report an issue with dark mode From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the year 1888. For the album, see 1888 (album). For the EP, see 1888 (EP). Millennium: 2nd millennium Centuries: 18th century19th century 20th century Decades: 1860s1870s1880s 1890s1900s Years: 1885188618871888 188918901891 1888 by topic Humanities AnimationArchaeologyArchitectureArtFilmLiterature PoetryMusic By country AustraliaBelgiumBrazilCanadaChinaDenmarkFranceGermanyItalyMexicoNew ZealandNorwayPortugalRussiaSouth AfricaSwedenUnited KingdomUnited States Other topics Rail transportScienceSports Lists of leaders Sovereign statesSovereign state leadersTerritorial governorsReligious leadersLaw Birth and death categories BirthsDeaths Establishments and disestablishments categories EstablishmentsDisestablishments Works category Works vte 1888 in various calendars Gregorian calendar 1888 MDCCCLXXXVIII Ab urbe condita 2641 Armenian calendar 1337 ԹՎ ՌՅԼԷ Assyrian calendar 6638 Baháʼí calendar 44–45 Balinese saka calendar 1809–1810 Bengali calendar 1295 Berber calendar 2838 British Regnal year 51 Vict. 1 – 52 Vict. 1 Buddhist calendar 2432 Burmese calendar 1250 Byzantine calendar 7396–7397 Chinese calendar 丁亥年 (Fire Pig) 4585 or 4378 — to — 戊子年 (Earth Rat) 4586 or 4379 Coptic calendar 1604–1605 Discordian calendar 3054 Ethiopian calendar 1880–1881 Hebrew calendar 5648–5649 Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1944–1945 - Shaka Samvat 1809–1810 - Kali Yuga 4988–4989 Holocene calendar 11888 Igbo calendar 888–889 Iranian calendar 1266–1267 Islamic calendar 1305–1306 Japanese calendar Meiji 21 (明治２１年) Javanese calendar 1817–1818 Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 days Korean calendar 4221 Minguo calendar 24 before ROC 民前24年 Nanakshahi calendar 420 Thai solar calendar 2430–2431 Tibetan calendar 阴火猪年 (female Fire-Pig) 2014 or 1633 or 861 — to — 阳土鼠年 (male Earth-Rat) 2015 or 1634 or 862 Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1888. 1888 (MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1888th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 888th year of the 2nd millennium, the 88th year of the 19th century, and the 9th year of the 1880s decade. As of the start of 1888, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923. Events January–March March 11: Great Blizzard of 1888. January 3 – The 91 cm (36 in)-long telescope at Lick Observatory in California is first used. January 12 – The Schoolhouse Blizzard hits Dakota Territory, the states of Montana, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, leaving 235 dead, many of them children on their way home from school. January 13 – The National Geographic Society is founded in Washington, D.C. January 19 – The Battle of the Grapevine Creek, the last major conflict of the Hatfield-McCoy Feud. January 21 – The Amateur Athletic Union is founded by William Buckingham Curtis in the United States. January 26 – The Lawn Tennis Association is founded in England. February 27 – In West Orange, New Jersey, Thomas Edison meets with Eadweard Muybridge, who proposes a scheme for sound film. March 8 – The Agriculture College of Utah (later Utah State University) is founded in Logan, Utah. March 9 – Wilhelm I dies, Frederick III becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia. March 11 – The Great Blizzard of 1888 begins along the eastern seaboard of the United States, shutting down commerce and killing more than 400. March 13 – The summit of Ritter Island collapsed resulting in a tsunami and the deaths of an estimated 500 to 3,500 people.[1] March 13 – De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. is founded in Kimberley. March 15 – The Sikkim Expedition, a British military expedition to expel the Tibetans from northern Sikkim, begins. March 16 – The foundation stone for a new National Library of Greece is laid in Athens. March 20 – The first Romani language operetta premieres in Moscow, Russia. March 23 – A meeting called by William McGregor, to discuss establishment of The Football League, is held in London. March 25 – Opening of an international Congress for Women's Rights organized by Susan B. Anthony in Washington, D.C., leading to formation of the International Council of Women, a key event in the international women's movement. April–June April 3 London prostitute Emma Elizabeth Smith is brutally attacked by two or three men, dying of her injuries the following day, first of the Whitechapel murders, but probably not a victim of Jack the Ripper. The Brighton Beach Hotel in Coney Island (New York) is moved 520 ft (160 m), using six steam locomotives, by civil engineer B. C. Miller, to save it from ocean storms. April 6 – The first New Year's Day is observed, of the solar calendar adopted by Siamese King Chulalongkorn, with the 106th anniversary of Bangkok's founding in 1782 as its epoch (reference date). April 11 – The Concertgebouw orchestra in Amsterdam is inaugurated. April 16 – The German Empire annexes the island of Nauru. April 18 – Westminster School is founded in Simsbury, Connecticut. April 21 – The Texas State Capitol building, completed at a cost of $3 million, opens to the public in Austin. May 1 – Fort Belknap Indian Reservation is established by the United States Congress. May 8 – The International Exhibition of Science, Art and Industry in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow opens (continues to November). May 10 – Nippon Oil Corporation, predecessor of Eneos, a petroleum and gas energy brand in Japan, is founded in Niigata Prefecture.[2] May 12 – The North Borneo Chartered Company's territories (including Sabah) become the British protectorate of North Borneo. May 13 – In Brazil, the Lei Áurea abolishes the last remnants of slavery. May 26 – The comic novel The Diary of a Nobody by brothers George and Weedon Grossmith begins serialization in Punch (London).[3] May 28 – In Glasgow (Scotland), Celtic F.C. plays its first official match, winning 5–2 against Rangers F.C. May 30 – Hong Kong's Peak Tram begins operation. June 2 – Edward King (bishop of Lincoln) in England is called to account for using ritualistic practices in Anglican worship.[4] June 3 The Kingdom of Sedang is formed, in modern-day Vietnam. American writer Ernest Thayer's baseball poem "Casey at the Bat" is first published (under the pen name "Phin") as the last of his humorous contributions to The San Francisco Examiner. June 14 – The White Rajahs territories become the British protectorate of Sarawak. June 15 – Wilhelm II becomes German Emperor and King of Prussia; 1888 is the Year of the Three Emperors. June 19 – In Chicago, the Republican Convention opens at the Auditorium Building. Benjamin Harrison and Levi P. Morton win the nominations for President and Vice President of the United States, respectively. June 29 – Handel's Israel in Egypt is recorded onto wax cylinder at The Crystal Palace in London, the earliest known recording of classical music. June 30 – The Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom opens its laboratory, on Plymouth Hoe. July–September August 31: Victim found from Jack the Ripper? July 2–27 – London matchgirls strike of 1888: About 200 workers, mainly teenaged girls, strike following the dismissal of three colleagues from the Bryant and May match factory, precipitated by an article on their working conditions published on June 23 by campaigning journalist Annie Besant, and the workers unionise on July 27.[5] July 11 – Over 200 miners were killed at a diamond mine in Kimberley, South Africa.[6] July 15 – According to Japanese government official confirmed report, A large scale eruption and ash smoke hit around Mount Bandai area, f*ckushima Prefecture, Japan, more than 477 people were killed.[7] July 25 – Frank Edward McGurrin, a court stenographer from Salt Lake City, Utah, purportedly the only person using touch typing at this time, wins a decisive victory over Louis Traub in a typing contest held in Cincinnati, Ohio. This date can be called the birthday of the touch typing method that is widely used in modern times. August 1 – Carl Benz is issued with the world's first driving licence by the Grand Duchy of Baden. August 5 – Bertha Benz arrives in Pforzheim having driven 40 miles (64 km) from Mannheim in a car manufactured by her husband Carl Benz, thus completing the first "long-distance" drive in the history of the automobile. August 7 – Whitechapel murders: The body of London prostitute Martha Tabram is found, a possible victim of Jack the Ripper.[8] August 9 A fire destroys the Main Building, the heart of Wells College in Aurora, New York, causing a loss of $130,000.[9] The Oaths Act permits the oath of allegiance taken to the Sovereign by Members of Parliament (MPs) to be affirmed, rather than sworn to God, thus confirming the ability of atheists to sit in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. August 10 – Dr Friedrich Hermann Wölfert’s motorised airship successfully completes the world’s first engine-driven flight, from Cannstatt to Kornwestheim in Germany.[10] August 13 – The Local Government Act, effective from 1889, establishes county councils and county borough councils in England and Wales, redraws some county boundaries, and gives women the vote in local elections. It also declares that "bicycles, tricycles, velocipedes, and other similar machines" be carriages within the meaning of the Highway Acts (which remains the case), and requires that they give audible warning when overtaking "any cart or carriage, or any horse, mule, or other beast of burden, or any foot passenger", a rule abolished in 1930. August 20 – A mutiny at Dufile, Equatoria, results in the imprisonment of the Emin Pasha. August 22 – Earliest evidence of a death and injury by a meteorite in Sulaymaniyah, Iraq. August 24 –The first trams in Tallinn (Reval), horsecars, begin operation. August 31 – Whitechapel murders: The mutilated body of London prostitute Mary Ann Nichols is found; she is considered the first victim of Jack the Ripper. September 4 In the United States, George Eastman registers the trademark Kodak, and receives a patent for his camera, which uses roll film. Mohandas Gandhi embarks on the S.S. Clyde from Bombay for London. September 6 – Charles Turner becomes the first bowler in cricket to take 250 wickets in an English season – a feat since accomplished only by Tom Richardson (twice), J. T. Hearne, Wilfred Rhodes (twice) and Tich Freeman (six times). September 8 The Great Herding (Spanish: El Gran Arreo) begins with thousands of sheep being herded from the Argentine outpost of Fortín Conesa to Santa Cruz near the Strait of Magellan.[11] Whitechapel murders: The mutilated body of London prostitute Annie Chapman is found (considered to be the second victim of Jack the Ripper). In England, the first six Football League matches are played.[8] In a letter accepting renomination as President of the United States, Grover Cleveland declares the Chinese "impossible of assimilation with our people and dangerous to our peace and welfare". September 17 – Las Cruces College (later New Mexico State University) is founded in Las Cruces, New Mexico. September 27 Whitechapel murders: The 'Dear Boss letter' signed "Jack the Ripper", the first time the name is used, is received by London's Central News Agency.[8] Stanley Park is officially opened by Vancouver (B.C.) mayor David Oppenheimer. September 30 – Whitechapel murders: The bodies of London prostitutes Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes, the latter mutilated, are found. They are generally considered Jack the Ripper's third and fourth victims, respectively. October–December October 1 – Sofia University officially opens, becoming the first university in liberated Bulgaria. October 2 – The Whitehall Mystery: Dismembered remains of a woman's body are discovered at three central London locations, one being the construction site of the police headquarters at New Scotland Yard. October 9 – The Washington Monument officially opens to the general public in Washington, D.C. October 9: Washington Monument opens. October 14 Louis Le Prince films the first motion picture: Roundhay Garden Scene in Roundhay, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, two seconds and 18 frames in length (followed by his movie Leeds Bridge and Accordion Player). Battle of Guté Dili: Seeking to extend Mahdist control over what is now southwestern Ethiopia, governor Khalil al-Khuzani is routed by an alliance of Shewan forces, under Ras Gobana Dacche and Moroda Bekere, ruler of Leqa Naqamte. Only a handful, including Khalil, barely manage to flee the battlefield. October 25 – St Cuthbert's Society at the University of Durham in England is founded, after a general meeting chaired by the Reverend Hastings Rashdall. October 30 – The Rudd Concession, a written concession for exclusive mining rights in Matabeleland, Mashonaland and adjoining territories, is granted by King Lobengula of Matabeleland to Charles Rudd, James Rochfort Maguire and Francis Thompson, who are acting on behalf of South African-based politician and businessman Cecil Rhodes, providing a basis for white settlement of Rhodesia. November 6 – 1888 United States presidential election: Democratic Party incumbent Grover Cleveland wins the popular vote, but loses the Electoral College vote to Republican challenger Benjamin Harrison, therefore losing the election. November 8 – Joseph Assheton Fincher files a patent in the United Kingdom for the parlour game which he calls "Tiddledy-Winks". November 9 – Whitechapel murders: The mutilated body of London prostitute Mary Jane Kelly is found. She is considered to be the fifth, and last, of Jack the Ripper's victims. A number of similar murders in England follow, but the police attribute them to copy-cat killers. November 16 – First signs of famine in Ethiopia, caused by drought combined with early spread of the 1890s African rinderpest epizootic. November 24 – The first Saint Verhaegen takes place in Brussels. November 27 – International sorority Delta Delta Delta is founded at Boston University in the United States. November 29 – The celebration of Thanksgiving (United States) and the first day of Hanukkah coincide. December 7 – John Boyd Dunlop patents the pneumatic bicycle tyre in the United Kingdom. December 17 – The Lyric Theatre, London opens. December 18 – Richard Wetherill and his brother-in-law, Charlie Mason, discover the Indian ruins of Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado. December 23 – During a bout of mental illness (and having quarreled with his friend Paul Gauguin), Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh infamously cuts off the lower part of his own left ear, taking it to a brothel, and is removed to the local hospital in Arles. Date unknown In Germany, 1888 is known as the Year of the Three Emperors. In Poland, Schiffers & Co. is founded in Warsaw.[12] The dolphin Pelorus Jack is first sighted in Cook Strait, New Zealand. The Camborne School of Mines is founded in Cornwall, England. John Robert Gregg first publishes Gregg shorthand in the United States. The Finnish epic Kalevala is published for the first time in the English language, by American linguist John Martin Crawford. The Baldwin School is founded in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, as "Miss [Florence] Baldwin's School for Girls, Preparatory for Bryn Mawr College". Global pharmaceutical and health care brands are founded in the United States: G.D. Searle by Gideon Daniel Searle in Omaha, Nebraska.[13] Abbott Laboratories as Abbott Alkaloidal by Dr. Wallace C. Abbott in Illinois.[14] Katz's Delicatessen is founded in the Lower East Side of Manhattan. First British rugby union tour of Australia and New Zealand. Births January–February Carlos Quintanilla Otto Stern Lotte Lehmann January 1 – Victor Goldschmidt, Swiss geochemist (d. 1947) January 8 – Matt Moore, Irish-born American actor (d. 1960) January 18 – Thomas Sopwith, English aviation pioneer, yachtsman (d. 1989) January 19 – Millard Harmon, American general (d. 1945) January 20 – Lead Belly, American folk, blues singer (d. 1949) January 22 – Carlos Quintanilla , 37th President of Bolivia (d. 1964) January 23 – Aritomo Gotō, Japanese admiral (d. 1942) January 24 Vicki Baum, Austrian writer (d. 1960) Ernst Heinkel, German aircraft designer (d. 1958) January 29 – Wellington Koo, Chinese statesman (d. 1985) February 2 – Frederick Lane, Australian swimmer (d. 1969) February 5 – Bruce Fraser, British admiral (d. 1981) February 8 – Edith Evans, British actress (d. 1976) February 11 – John Warren Davis, American educator, college administrator, and civil rights leader (d. 1980)[15] February 13 – Georgios Papandreou, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1968) February 14 – Chandrashekhar Agashe, Indian industrialist (d. 1956)[16] February 17 – Otto Stern, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969) February 19 Tom Phillips, British admiral (d. 1941) Aurora Quezon, First Lady of the Philippines (d. 1949) February 20 – Georges Bernanos, French writer (d. 1948) February 25 – John Foster Dulles, United States Secretary of State (d. 1959) February 27 Lotte Lehmann, German singer (d. 1976) Arthur Schlesinger Sr., American historian (d. 1965) March–April Ilo Wallace March 4 – Knute Rockne, American football player, coach (d. 1931) March 5 – Peg Leg Howell, American country blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966) March 7 – William L. Laurence, American journalist (d. 1977) March 10 Barry Fitzgerald, Irish actor (d. 1961) Ilo Wallace, Second Lady of the United States (d. 1981)[17] March 17– Paul Ramadier, 63rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1961) March 18– Jerry Dawson, English footballer, Burnley and national team (d. 1970) March 26 – Elsa Brändström, Swedish nurse (d. 1948) March 29 – Enea Bossi Sr., Italian-born American aerospace engineer, aviation pioneer (d. 1963) March 30 – Anna Q. Nilsson, Swedish-American silent film star (d. 1974) April 1 – Terry de la Mesa Allen Sr., American general (d. 1969) April 2 – Sir Neville Cardus, British cricket, music writer (d. 1975) April 3 – Thomas C. Kinkaid, American admiral (d. 1972) April 4 – Tris Speaker, American professional baseball player, member of the Baseball Hall of Fame (d. 1958) April 6 Hans Richter, German artist and filmmaker (d. 1976) Gerhard Ritter, German historian (d. 1967) April 12 – Carlos Julio Arosem*na Tola, 28th president of Ecuador (d. 1952) April 18 – Duffy Lewis, American Major League Baseball player (d. 1979) April 26 – Anita Loos, American writer (d. 1981) April 27 – Florence La Badie, Canadian actress (d. 1917) May–June Irving Berlin David Dougal Williams May 8 – Maurice Boyau, French World War I fighter ace (d. 1918) May 9 – Francesco Baracca, Italian World War I fighter ace (d. 1918) May 10 – Max Steiner, Austrian-American composer (d. 1971) May 11 Irving Berlin, American composer (d. 1989) Willis Augustus Lee, American admiral (d. 1945) May 13 – Inge Lehmann, Danish seismologist, geophysicist (d. 1993) May 17 – Tich Freeman, English cricketer (d. 1965) May 18 – William Hood Simpson, American general (d. 1980) May 23 – Zack Wheat, American Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1972) May 25 – Miles Malleson, English actor (d. 1969) May 28– Kaarel Eenpalu, 7th Prime Minister of Estonia (d. 1942) May 31 – Jack Holt, American actor (d. 1951) June – David Dougal Williams, British painter and art teacher (d. 1944) June 13 – Fernando Pessoa, Portuguese writer (d. 1935) June 17 – Heinz Guderian, German general (d. 1954) June 22 Milton Allen, Governor of Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla (d. 1981) Harold Hitz Burton, American politician, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (d. 1964) June 24 – Gerrit Rietveld, Dutch architect (d. 1964) June 27 – Antoinette Perry, American stage director for whom the Tony Award is named (d. 1946) June 29 – Squizzy Taylor, Australian underworld figure (d. 1927) July–August Herbert Spencer Gasser Frits Zernike July 5 – Herbert Spencer Gasser, American physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1963) July 10 – Giorgio de Chirico, Italian painter (d. 1978) July 16 Percy Kilbride, American actor (d. 1964) Frits Zernike, Dutch physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1966) July 17 – Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Israeli writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970) July 22 – Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-born American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973) July 23 – Raymond Chandler, American-born novelist (d. 1959) August 4 – Taher Saifuddin, Indian Bohra spiritual leader (d. 1965) August 6 – Heinrich Schlusnus, German baritone (d. 1952) August 9 – Eduard Ritter von Schleich, German fighter ace, air force general (d. 1947) August 13 – John Logie Baird, Scottish inventor (d. 1946) August 16 – T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"), British liaison officer during the Arab Revolt, writer and academic (d. 1935) August 17 – Monty Woolley, American actor (d. 1963) August 20 – Tôn Đức Thắng, 2nd president of Vietnam (d. 1980) August 25 – Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi, Pakistani scholar, politician (d. 1963) August 28 – Evadne Price, Australian-British writer, actress and astrologer (d. 1985) August 29 – Gunichi Mikawa, Japanese admiral (d. 1981) September–October Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. Maurice Chevalier T. S. Eliot September 5 – Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosopher, politician and 2nd President of India (d. 1975) September 6 Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., American politician (d. 1969) Zeng Junchen, Chinese drug baron (d. 1964) September 8 – Ida McNeil, American broadcaster and designer of the flag of South Dakota (d. 1974)[18] September 12 – Maurice Chevalier, French singer and actor (d. 1972) September 16 Frans Eemil Sillanpää, Finnish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1964) W. O. Bentley, English engineer, entrepreneur (d. 1971) September 17 – Michiyo Tsujimura, Japanese agricultural scientist (d. 1969)[19] September 18 – Grey Owl, British conservationist, impostor, writer (d. 1938) September 20 – John Painter, American supercentenarian, world's oldest man between 1999 and 2001 (d. 2001) September 26 J. Frank Dobie, American folklorist, journalist (d. 1964) T. S. Eliot, American-born British poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965) September 28 – Seán Lester, Irish diplomat (d. 1959) October 4 – Friedrich Olbricht, German general (d. 1944) October 6 – Roland Garros, French pilot (killed in action 1918) October 7 Renya Mutaguchi, Japanese general (d. 1966)[20] Henry A. Wallace, 33rd Vice President of the United States (d. 1965)[21] October 8 – Ernst Kretschmer, German psychiatrist (d. 1964) October 9 – Nikolai Bukharin, Russian Bolshevik and Soviet politician (d. 1938) October 14 – Katherine Mansfield, New Zealand fiction writer (d. 1923) October 16 Eugene O'Neill, American playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1953) Paul Popenoe, American eugenicist (d. 1979) Mikhail Kaganovich, Soviet politician (d. 1941) October 17 – Paul Bernays, Swiss mathematician (d. 1977) October 24 – Carlo Bergamini, Italian admiral (d. 1943) October 25 – Lester Cuneo, American actor (d. 1925) October 30 – Alan Goodrich Kirk, American admiral (d. 1963) October 31 – Hubert Wilkins, Australian explorer of the Arctic (d. 1958) November–December C. V. Raman Harpo Marx Gladys Cooper F. W. Murnau November 1 – Viliami Tungī Mailefihi, 7th Premier of Tonga (d. 1941) November 7 Nestor Makhno, Ukrainian anarcho-communist revolutionary (d. 1934) C. V. Raman, Indian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970) November 9 – Jean Monnet, French political economist, diplomat and a founding father of the European Union (d. 1979) November 15 José Raúl Capablanca, Cuban World chess champion (1921–1927) (d. 1942) Harald Sverdrup, Norwegian scientist (d. 1957) November 23 – Harpo Marx, American comedian (d. 1964) November 24 Dale Carnegie, American writer, lecturer (d. 1955) Cathleen Nesbitt, British actress (d. 1982) November 29 – Oswald Rayner, British MI6 agent (d. 1961) November 30 – Ralph Hartley, American electronics researcher, inventor (d. 1970) December 3 – Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, Polish-born Chief Rabbi of Ireland and Israel (d. 1959) December 4 Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934) Donald B. Beary, American admiral (d. 1966) December 6 – Will Hay, British actor, comedian (d. 1949) December 7 Joyce Cary, Northern Irish author (d. 1957) Jinichi Kusaka, Japanese admiral (d. 1972) December 16 – Alphonse Juin, French general, Marshal of France (d. 1967) December 18 Dame Gladys Cooper, English actress (d. 1971) Robert Moses, American civil engineer, public works director, highway and bridge builder (d. 1981) December 19 – Fritz Reiner, Hungarian conductor (d. 1963) December 22 – Theodore Stark Wilkinson, American admiral (d. 1946) December 25 – Bonita Wa Wa Calachaw Nuñez, American painter (d. 1972) December 28 – F. W. Murnau, German film director (d. 1931) Date unknown Ibrahim Hashem, 3-time prime minister of Jordan (d. 1958) Deaths January–June Wilhelm I Frederick Miller Ascanio Sobrero Frederick III January 7 – Golam Ali Chowdhury, Bengali landlord and philanthropist (b. 1824)[22] January 19 – Anton de Bary, German biologist (b. 1831) January 20 – William Pitt Ballinger, Texas lawyer, southern statesman (b. 1825) January 29 – Edward Lear, British artist, writer (b. 1812) January 31 – John Bosco, Italian priest, youth worker, educator and founder of the Salesian Society (b. 1815) February 3 – Sir Henry Maine, British jurist (b. 1822) February 5 – Anton Mauve, Dutch painter (b. 1838) February 22 – Anna Kingsford, British women's rights activist (b. 1846) February 24 – Seth Kinman, American hunter, settler (b. 1815) March 6 Louisa May Alcott, American novelist (b. 1832)[23] Josif Pančić, Serbian botanist (b. 1814) March 9 – William I, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. 1797) March 12 – Henry Bergh, founder of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (b. 1813) March 16 – Hippolyte Carnot, French statesman (b. 1801) March 23 – Morrison Waite, Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1816) March 27 – Francesco Faà di Bruno, Italian mathematician (b. 1825) March 29 – Charles-Valentin Alkan, French composer, pianist (b. 1813) April 4 – Emma Elizabeth Smith, Whitechapel Murders victim (b. 1843) April 14 – Emil Czyrniański, Polish chemist (b. 1824) April 15 – Matthew Arnold, English poet (b. 1822) April 17 – Ephraim George Squier, American archaeologist, newspaper editor (b. 1821) April 19 – Thomas Russell Crampton, English engineer (b. 1816) May 6 – Abraham Joseph Ash, American rabbi (b. c. 1813)[24] May 11 – Frederick Miller, German-born American brewer and businessman (b. 1824) May 15 – Edwin Hamilton Davis, American archaeologist, physician (b. 1811) May 19 – Julius Rockwell, United States politician (b. 1805) May 26 – Ascanio Sobrero, Italian chemist (b. 1812) June 7 – Edmond Le Bœuf, French general, Marshal of France (b. 1809) June 8 – Sir Duncan Cameron, British army general (b. 1808) June 15 – Frederick III, German Emperor, King of Prussia (b. 1831) June 23 – Edmund Gurney, British psychologist (b. 1847) July–December Paul Langerhans John Pemberton Carl Zeiss July 1 – Maiden of Ludmir, Jewish religious leader (b. 1805) July 4 – Theodor Storm, German writer (b. 1817) July 9 – Jan Brand, 4th president of the Orange Free State (b. 1823) July 20 – Paul Langerhans, German pathologist, biologist (b. 1847) August 5 – Philip Sheridan, American general (b. 1831) August 7 – Martha Tabram, possible first victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1849) August 9 – Charles Cros, French poet (b. 1842) August 16 – John Pemberton, American pharmacist, founder of Coca-Cola (b. 1831) August 20 – Henry Richard, Welsh peace campaigner (b. 1812) August 23 – Philip Henry Gosse, British scientist (b. 1810) August 24 – Rudolf Clausius, German physicist, contributor to thermodynamics (b. 1822) August 31 – Mary Ann Nichols, first confirmed victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1845) September 6 – John Lester Wallack, American theater impresario (b. 1820) September 8 – Annie Chapman, victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1841) September 11 – Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Argentine politician, writer, and father of education (b. 1811) September 23 – François Achille Bazaine, French general (b. 1811) September 24 – Karl von Prantl, German philosopher (b. 1820) September 30 Catherine Eddowes, victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1842) Elizabeth Stride, victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1843) October 16 Horatio Spafford, American author of the hymn It Is Well With My Soul (b. 1828) John Wentworth, Mayor of Chicago (b. 1815) October 26 – William Thomas Hamilton, American politician (b. 1820) November 1 – Nikolay Przhevalsky, Russian explorer (b. 1839) November 9 – Mary Jane Kelly, fifth and final confirmed victim of Jack the Ripper (b. 1863) November 10 – George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, British army officer and aristocrat (b. 1800) November 11 – Pedro Ñancúpel, Chilean pirate active in the fjords and channels of Patagonia. He was executed.[25] November 13 – José María Díaz, Spanish romanticist playwright and journalist (b. 1813) November 17 – Dora d'Istria, Romanian/Albanian writer and nationalist (b. 1828) November 24 – Cicero Price, American commodore (b. 1805) December 2 – Namık Kemal, Turkish patriotic poet, social reformer (b. 1840) December 3 – Carl Zeiss, German optician, founder of Carl Zeiss AG (b. 1816) December 10 – William E. Le Roy, American admiral (b. 1818) December 20 – Rose Mylett, Whitechapel murders victim (b. 1859) December 24 – Mikhail Loris-Melikov, Russian statesman, general (b. 1826) December 31 Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi (b. 1808) John Westcott, American surveyor and politician (b. 1807) Date unknown Caroline Howard Gilman Caroline Howard Gilman, American author (b. 1794) References Paris, R.; Switzer, A.D.; Belousova, M. (2014). "Volcanic tsunami: a review of source mechanisms, past events and hazards in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea)". Natural Hazards. 70 (1): 447–440. Bibcode:2014NatHa..70..447P. doi:10.1007/s11069-013-0822-8. S2CID 73610567. Coumbe, Albert Thompson (1924). Petroleum in Japan. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 10. "The Diary of a Nobody". Punch, or the London Charivari. 94: 241. May 26, 1888. Newton, John A. (2004). "King, Edward (1829–1910)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34319. Retrieved October 12, 2012. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) "The Match Workers Strike Fund Register". Trades Union Congress Library at the London Metropolitan University. Retrieved December 10, 2016. "The Kimberley Diamond-mine Disaster". The Cornishman. No. 524. July 19, 1888. p. 7. 佐藤（2005b）; 北原（1995a）pp.162-165、米地（2006）pp.122-123. Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN 0-14-102715-0. "Wells College Destroyed" (PDF). The New York Times. August 10, 1888. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. "The first engine-driven flight". Daimler. Archived from the original on May 9, 2016. Retrieved April 15, 2016. Guzmán, Yuyú (March 3, 2007). "Rincón gaucho. Un arreo que extendió la frontera ganadera". La Nación. Retrieved January 20, 2021. Nikogosyan, David N. "Hollow Ware Marks of Warsaw Silver Plate Factories Operated in the Russian Empire". www.ascasonline.org. ASSOCIATION OF SMALL COLLECTORS OF ANTIQUE SILVER. Retrieved April 30, 2024. "Searle family". Forbes. 2015. Retrieved November 12, 2022. Burrell, Brandon (2013). Abbott Laboratories: Provisioning a Vision. Tallahassee: Florida State University. West Virginia Archives and History (2019). "John Warren Davis". West Virginia Department of Arts, Culture and History. Archived from the original on February 29, 2020. Retrieved February 29, 2020. Ranade 1974, p. 61. "Wallace, Ilo Browne, 1888-1981". SNAC. Retrieved September 12, 2023. "Dakota Images: Ida Anding McNeil" (PDF). South Dakota History. 11 (2). South Dakota State Historical Society. 1981. Retrieved April 4, 2024. SA NEWS (September 18, 2021). "Google Doodle on Michiyo Tsujimura: Synopsis of Michiyo Tsujimura's Life". Retrieved September 12, 2023. Budge, Kent G. "Mutaguchi Renya (1888-1966)". The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 3, 2024. "WALLACE, Henry Agard". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved September 12, 2023. "Privy Council Appeal No. 90 of 1922, from Bengal Appeal No. 27 of 1919", Case Mine, December 5, 1994, Karimunnessa Khatun and others v. Mahomed Fazlul Karim and others "Louisa May Alcott | Biography, Childhood, Family, Books, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved June 26, 2020. Public Domain Cyrus Adler and Judah David Eisenstein (1901–1906). "ASH, ABRAHAM JOSEPH". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Cárdenas Álvarez, Renato (January 17, 2005). "La historia del pirata chilote Pedro Ñancúpel" (in Spanish). El Llanquihue. Retrieved January 10, 2019. Cuando es capturado en Melinka ya era una leyenda porque había evadido la persecución. Bibliography Ranade, Sadashiv Bhaskar (1974). Cittapāvana Kauśika Gotrī Āgāśe-Kula-vr̥ttānta [The Agashe Family Genealogy belonging to the Chitpavan Kaushik Gotra] (Kulavruttanta) (in Marathi) (1st ed.). Pune: University of Michigan. LCCN 74903020. OCLC 600048059. Further reading and year books 1888 Annual Cyclopedia (1889) highly detailed coverage of "Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry" for year 1888; massive compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage; 831 pp Categories: 1888Leap years in the Gregorian calendar Crown (British coin) One crown Great Britain United Kingdom Value 5/— (25p in decimal currency) £5 (commemorative coins from 1990 and later) Diameter 38 mm Edge Milled Composition (1816–1919) 92.5% Ag (1920–1946) 50% Ag (1947–1970) Cupronickel Years of minting 1707–1981 Obverse Obverse of the crown of 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg Design Profile of the monarch (Victoria "jubilee head" design shown) Designer Joseph Boehm Design date 1887 Reverse Reverse crown 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpg Design Various (St George design shown) Designer Benedetto Pistrucci Design date 1817 The British crown was a denomination of sterling coinage worth 1 / 4 of one pound, or 5 shillings, or 60 (old) pence. The crown was first issued during the reign of Edward VI, as part of the coinage of the Kingdom of England. Always a heavy silver coin weighing around one ounce, during the 19th and 20th centuries the crown declined from being a real means of exchange to being a coin rarely spent, and minted for commemorative purposes only. Unlike in some territories of the British Empire (such as Jamaica), in the UK the crown was never replaced as circulating currency by a five-shilling banknote. "Decimal" crowns were minted a few times after decimalisation of the British currency in 1971, initially with a nominal value of 25 (new) pence. However, commemorative crowns issued since 1990 have a face value of five pounds.[1] History The coin's origins lie in the English silver crown, one of many silver coins that appeared in various countries from the 16th century onwards (most famously the Spanish piece of eight), all of similar size and weight (approx 38mm diameter, 25g fine silver) and thus interchangeable in international trade. The Kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns until early in the reign of Charles II.[2] The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony.[3] The British silver crown was always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate well. However, crowns were usually struck in a new monarch's coronation year, from George IV through Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exceptions of George V and Edward VIII. "Gothic" crown of Queen Victoria (1847). The coin had a mintage of just 8,000 and was produced to celebrate the Gothic revival The King George V "wreath" crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 (excluding 1935 when the more common "rocking horse" crown was minted to commemorate the King's Silver Jubilee) depict a wreath on the reverse of the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they were generally kept rather than circulated. The 1927 "wreath" crowns were struck as proofs only (15,030 minted) and the 1934 coin had a mintage of just 932.[citation needed] With their large size, many of the later coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951 issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was only struck in proof condition. The 1953 crown was issued to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, while the 1960 issue (which carried the same reverse design as the previous crown in 1953) commemorated the British Exhibition in New York. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston Churchill on the reverse. According to the Standard Catalogue of coins, 19,640,000 of this coin were minted, although intended as collectable pieces the large mintage and lack of precious metal content means these coins are effectively worthless today.[4] Production of the Churchill crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966. The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient. In 2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown. The coin was unique, issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in 1663 and nicknamed the "Reddite Crown". It was presented to Charles II as the new crown piece, but ultimately rejected in favour of the Roettiers Brothers' design. Auctioneers Spink & Son of London sold the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission.[5] All pre-decimal crowns from 1818 on remain legal tender with a face value of 25p.[6] Decimal crowns Main articles: British twenty-five pence coin and Five pounds (British coin) After decimalisation on 15 February 1971, the 25-pence coin was introduced as a replacement for the crown as a commemorative coin. These were legal tender[6] and were made with large mintages. Further issues continued to be minted, initially with a value of twenty-five pence (with no face value shown). From 1990, the face value of new crown coins was raised to five pounds.[1] Preceded by English crown Crown 1707–1965 Succeeded by Twenty–five pence Changing values The legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to 1965. However, for most of this period there was no denominational designation or "face value" mark of value displayed on the coin. From 1927 to 1939, the word "CROWN" appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was changed to "FIVE SHILLINGS". Coins minted since 1818 remain legal tender with a face value of 25 pence. Although all "normal" issues since 1951 have been composed of cupro-nickel, special proof versions have been produced for sale to collectors, and as gift items, in silver, gold, and occasionally platinum. The fact that gold £5 crowns are now produced means that there are two different strains of five pound gold coins, namely crowns and what are now termed "quintuple sovereigns" for want of a more concise term.[7][8] Numismatically, the term "crown-sized" is used generically to describe large silver or cupro-nickel coins of about 40 mm in diameter. Most Commonwealth countries still issue crown-sized coins for sale to collectors. New Zealand's original fifty-cent pieces, and Australia's previously round but now dodecagonal fifty-cent piece, although valued at five shillings in predecimal accounting, are all smaller than the standard silver crown pieces issued by those countries (and the UK). They were in fact similarly sized to the predecimal half crown (worth two shillings and sixpence). Composition For silver crowns, the grade of silver adhered to the long-standing standard (established in the 12th century by Henry II) – the Sterling Silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of "clipping", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today. In a debasem*nt process which took effect in 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with a portion of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for a significant period. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, with the move to a composition of cupro-nickel – except for proof issues, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition. Since the Great Recoinage of 1816, a crown has, as a general rule, had a diameter of 38.61 millimetres (1.520 in), and weighed 28.276 grams (defined as 10⁄11 troy ounce).[9][10] Modern mintages Monarch Year Number minted Detail Composition* Edward VII As 5/- (60d - quarter sovereign) 1902 256,020 Coronation 0.925 silver George V 1927 15,030 (proof only) 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1928 9,034 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1929 4,994 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1930 4,847 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1931 4,056 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1932 2,395 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1933 7,132 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1934 932 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver 1935 714,769 George V and Queen Mary Silver Jubilee 0.500 silver 1936 2,473 'Wreath' Crown 0.500 silver George VI 1937 418,699 Coronation 0.500 silver 1951 1,983,540 Festival of Britain Cu/Ni Elizabeth II 1953 5,962,621 Coronation Cu/Ni 1960 1,024,038 British Exhibition in New York Cu/Ni 1965 19,640,000 Death of Sir Winston Churchill Cu/Ni As 25p (quarter sovereign) 1972 7,452,100 Queen Elizabeth II 25th Wedding Anniversary 25p Cu/Ni 1977 37,061,160 Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Cu/Ni 1980 9,306,000 Queen Mother 80th Birthday Cu/Ni 1981 26,773,600 Charles & Diana Wedding Cu/Ni For crowns minted from 1990, which have a value of £5, see here. The specifications for composition refer to the standard circulation versions. Proof versions continue to be minted in Sterling silver. Gallery Quarter sovereign In 1853, the Royal Mint had produced two patterns for a gold 5-shilling coin for circulation use, one denominated as five shillings and the other as a quarter sovereign, but this coin never went into production, in part due to concerns about the small size of the coin and likely wear in circulation.[11] The quarter sovereign was introduced in 2009 as a bullion coin. References icon Money portal Numismatics portal flag United Kingdom portal "The Royal Mint: Five Pound Coin Designs and Specifications". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 10 July 2015. "Crown". Royal Mint Museum. Retrieved 17 July 2022. In 1551 Edward VI issued a large silver coin of the value of five shillings and as its currency value was the same as that of the gold crown it took its name from that coin. Both gold and silver crowns continued to be struck concurrently until early in the reign of Charles II, when minting of the gold crown ceased. Warwick William Wroth, 'Croker, John (1670-1741)' in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, vol. 13 "How Much is a 1965 Winston Churchill Coin Worth?". churchillcentral.com. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2022. "Spink sets new world record for an English silver coin, 27 March 2014". Spink Auctioneers. Archived from the original on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2014. "How can I dispose of commemorative crowns? And why do some have a higher face value than others?". The Royal Mint Museum. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2019. "Quintuple Sovereigns - Five Pound Gold Coins". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. "British Gold Proof Commemorative Crowns". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. Specifications of British Pre-decimal Coins Kindleberger, Charles P. (2005). A Financial History of Western Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 9780415378673. OnlineCoinClub Quarter Sovereign pre-decimal External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crown (British coin). History of Five Shilling Coins on Coins of the UK Royal Mint Museum's history of Crown Coin Crown, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin Club vte Currency units named crown or similar Circulating Czech korunaDanish kroneFaroese krónaIcelandic krónaNorwegian kroneSwedish krona Defunct Austrian kroneAustrian Netherlands kronenthalerAustro-Hungarian crownBohemian and Moravian korunaCzechoslovak korunaEstonian kroonFiume kroneHungarian koronaLiechtenstein kroneSlovak korunaSlovak koruna (1939–1945)Yugoslav krone Proposed Greenlandic koruuni As a denomination British crownEnglish crownKronenthaler vte Sterling coinage Decimal 1 / 2 p1p2p5p10p20p50p£1£2 Pre-decimal Quarter farthing ( 1 / 16 d) (British Ceylon)Third farthing ( 1 / 12 d) (Crown Colony of Malta)Half farthing ( 1 / 8 d)Farthing ( 1 / 4 d)Halfpenny ( 1 / 2 d)Penny (1d)Three halfpence (1+ 1 / 2 d) (British Ceylon & British West Indies)Twopence (2d)Threepence (3d)Fourpence (4d)Sixpence (6d)Shilling (1/–)Fifteen pence (1/3d) (Australia)Eighteen Pence(1/6d) (British Ireland)Florin (2/–)Half crown (2/6d)Thirty Pence(2/6d) (British Ireland)Double florin (4/–)Crown (5/–)Six Shillings (6/-) (British Ireland)Quarter guinea (5/3d)Third guinea (7/–)Half sovereign (10/–)Half guinea (10/6d)Sovereign (£1)Guinea (£1/1/–)Double sovereign (£2)Two guineas (£2/2/–)Five pounds (£5)Five guineas (£5/5/–) Commemorative 3p (Tristan Da Cunha)6p25p60p (Isle of Man)70p (Ascension Island)£5£10£20£25£50£100£200£500£1000Maundy money Bullion BritanniaQuarter sovereignHalf sovereignSovereignDouble sovereignQuintuple sovereignLunarThe Queen's BeastsLandmarks of Britain See also SterlingSterling banknotesList of British banknotes and coinsList of British currenciesJubilee coinageOld Head coinageScottish coinageCoins of IrelandList of people on coins of the United Kingdom Categories: Crown (currency)Coins of Great BritainCoins of the United KingdomQuarter-base-unit coins Queen Victoria Victoria Photograph of Queen Victoria, 1882 Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882 Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...) Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Coronation 28 June 1838 Predecessor William IV Successor Edward VII Empress of India Reign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877 Successor Edward VII Born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 24 May 1819 Kensington Palace, London, England Died 22 January 1901 (aged 81) Osborne House, Isle of Wight, England Burial 4 February 1901 Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, Windsor Spouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (m. 1840; died 1861) Issue Victoria, German Empress Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom Alice, Grand duch*ess of Hesse and by Rhine Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein Princess Louise, duch*ess of Argyll Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg House Hanover Father Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn Mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Signature Victoria's signature Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality. Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Birth and family Portrait of Victoria at age 4 Victoria at the age of four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823 Victoria's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte's widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and duch*ess of Kent's only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1] Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent's eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2] At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria's father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William's legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William's second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was fourth in line.[4] The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother, William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria's mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the duch*ess's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6] Heir presumptive Portrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833 Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called "Kensington System", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the duch*ess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the duch*ess's lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The duch*ess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William's illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13] Victoria's sketch of herself Self-portrait, 1835 In 1830, the duch*ess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the duch*ess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother's household.[22] By 1836, Victoria's maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful."[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as "very plain".[28] Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her "best and kindest adviser",[29] to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see."[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31] Early reign Accession Drawing of two men on their knees in front of Victoria Victoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887. Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen."[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33] Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father's unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria's heir presumptive until she had a child.[34] Coronation portrait by George Hayter At the time of Victoria's accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father's debts.[39] At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother's ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the duch*ess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne".[48] In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the "bedchamber crisis", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50] Marriage See also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen Victoria Painting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent room Marriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George Hayter Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother's continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother's proximity promised "torment for many years", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking [sic] alternative".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54] Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James's Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary: I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56] Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen's companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria's aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59] Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford's attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840 During Victoria's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857). The household was largely run by Victoria's childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria's close relationship with her ended.[68] Married reign Portrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843 On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years' transportation.[72] Melbourne's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73] Victoria cuddling a child next to her Earliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74] In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82] By 1846, Peel's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative "Peelites"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83] Victoria's British prime ministers Year Prime Minister (party) 1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig) 1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative) 1846 Lord John Russell (W) 1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C) 1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite) 1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal) 1858 Earl of Derby (C) 1859 Viscount Palmerston (L) 1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L) 1866 Earl of Derby (C) 1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C) 1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L) 1874 Benjamin Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C) 1880 William Gladstone (L) 1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L) 1886 (Jul) Marquess of Salisbury (C) 1892 William Gladstone (L) 1894 Earl of Rosebery (L) 1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C) See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoria for details of her British and Imperial premiers Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91] Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848 Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government's approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell's administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby. Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around her Albert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena. In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics" over a "miserable trifle".[97] In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98] Napoleon III, Britain's closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101] Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859 On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104] Derby's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[105] Eleven days after Orsini's assassination attempt in France, Victoria's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[106] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[107] The Queen felt "sick at heart" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one."[108] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor. Widowhood Victoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860 In March 1861, Victoria's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband's death on worry over the Prince of Wales's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business", she said.[117] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120] Victoria's self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant's declining business".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[123] Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson. Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as "Mrs. Brown".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[126] Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert's death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery," he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel."[130] With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman".[132] In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As the tenth anniversary of her husband's death approached, her son's condition grew no better, and Victoria's distress continued.[137] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139] On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months' imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident, Victoria's popularity recovered further.[142] Empress Wikisource has original text related to this article: Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of India After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[145] Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli's 1875 portrait of her for its "honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character".[146] In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[150] On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert's death, Victoria's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday". She felt "aged" by "the loss of my beloved child".[152] Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power", she wrote, "we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY."[154] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries", she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so."[155] To Victoria's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears",[157] and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I."[158] Later years Victorian farthing, 1884 On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria's refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[161] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved".[162] On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[163] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown".[167] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons", she lamented.[168] The following month, Victoria's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[169] Extent of the British Empire in 1898 Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[170] She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria's glee it was defeated.[173] In the ensuing election, Gladstone's party lost to Salisbury's and the government switched hands again. Golden Jubilee The Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a desk Victoria and the Munshi Abdul Karim In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[177][178][179] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do."[181] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[183] Victoria's eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria's eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert's hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]".[184] Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[186] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria's reign.[187] Diamond Jubilee Seated Victoria in embroidered and lace dress Victoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. Downey On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191] The Queen's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192] Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900 Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194] Death and succession Portrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899 In July 1900, Victoria's second son, Alfred ("Affie"), died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too", she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another."[195] Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell",[197] and by mid-January she was "drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[201] Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria's funeral In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier's daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward, Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[206] With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband's House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Legacy See also: Cultural depictions of Queen Victoria Victoria smiling Victoria amused. The remark "We are not amused" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied doing so.[209] According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After Victoria's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part of Victoria's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214] Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each side The Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death. Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter" on many occasions.[221] Through Victoria's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[223] As Victoria's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[224] Descendants and haemophilia Victoria's links with Europe's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain. Victoria's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in Victoria's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria's mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[230] Namesakes The Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, India Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa's largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland), and the capital of the island nation of Seychelles. The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War,[231] and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday). Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles 24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901: Her Majesty The Queen At the end of her reign, the Queen's full style was: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India".[232] Honours British honours Royal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[234] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[235] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[236] Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[237] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[238] Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[239] Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[240] Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[241] Foreign honours Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[242] Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[243] Portugal: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[244] Grand Cross of Our Lady of Conception[243] Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[245] France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[246] Mexico: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[247] Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[248] Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[249] Persia:[250] Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873 Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873 Siam: Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[251] Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[252] Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[253] Serbia:[254][255] Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882 Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883 Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897 Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[256] Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[257] Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[258] Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[259] Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and duch*ess Marie, 23 January 1899[260] Arms As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne. Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland. Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svg Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svg Royal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland) Family Victoria's family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter. Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria. Issue See also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IX Name Birth Death Spouse and children[232][261] Victoria, Princess Royal 21 November 1840 5 August 1901 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888); 4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece) Edward VII of the United Kingdom 9 November 1841 6 May 1910 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925); 3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway) Princess Alice 25 April 1843 14 December 1878 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892); 2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia) Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 6 August 1844 31 July 1900 Married 1874, Grand duch*ess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920); 2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania) Princess Helena 25 May 1846 9 June 1923 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917); 4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughters Princess Louise 18 March 1848 3 December 1939 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914); no issue Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1 May 1850 16 January 1942 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917); 1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden) Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 7 April 1853 28 March 1884 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922); 1 son, 1 daughter Princess Beatrice 14 April 1857 26 October 1944 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896); 3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain) Ancestry Ancestors of Queen Victoria[262] Family tree Red borders indicate British monarchs Bold borders indicate children of British monarchs Family of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George V Notes Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria's maternal grandmother the Dowager duch*ess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria's aunt Princess Mary, duch*ess of Gloucester and Edinburgh). Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council's proclamation declared Victoria as the King's successor "saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty's Consort". "No. 19509". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581. References Citations Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35 Longford, p. 24 Worsley, p. 41. Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25 Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers. 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(1998), Victoria's Daughters, New York: St. Martin's Press, ISBN 0-312-24496-7 Potts, D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria's Gene: Haemophilia and the Royal Family, Stroud: Alan Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-1199-9 St. Aubyn, Giles (1991), Queen Victoria: A Portrait, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, ISBN 1-85619-086-2 Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and Windus Waller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2 Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9 Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2 Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow, London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8 Primary sources Benson, A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. (1907), The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection of Her Majesty's Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861, London: John Murray Bolitho, Hector, ed. (1938), Letters of Queen Victoria from the Archives of the House of Brandenburg-Prussia, London: Thornton Butterworth Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1926), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 2nd Series 1862–1885, London: John Murray Buckle, George Earle, ed. (1930), The Letters of Queen Victoria, 3rd Series 1886–1901, London: John Murray Connell, Brian (1962), Regina v. Palmerston: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837–1865, London: Evans Brothers Duff, David, ed. (1968), Victoria in the Highlands: The Personal Journal of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, London: Muller Dyson, Hope; Tennyson, Charles, eds. (1969), Dear and Honoured Lady: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria and Alfred Tennyson, London: Macmillan Esher, Viscount, ed. (1912), The Girlhood of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty's Diaries Between the Years 1832 and 1840, London: John Murray Fulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans Brothers Fulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans Brothers Hibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7 Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-434-34861-9 Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John Murray Mortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy Ponsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: Macmillan Ramm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6 Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, Elder Victoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, Elder Further reading Arnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4 Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0 Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria's Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, Bloomsbury Carter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University Press Eyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, Chatto Gardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7 Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University Press Homans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876 Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin's Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3 James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630 Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and Empire Lyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8 Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, Penguin Taylor, Miles (2020), "The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777 Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2 Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0 External links Listen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes) 1:01:53 Spoken Wikipedia icon This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits. (Audio help · More spoken articles) Queen Victoria at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Data from Wikidata Portraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Queen Victoria's Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian Library Works by Queen Victoria at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Queen Victoria at Internet Archive Works by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Queen Victoria House of Hanover Cadet branch of the House of Welf Born: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901 Regnal titles Preceded by William IV Queen of the United Kingdom 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded by Edward VII Vacant Title last held by Bahadur Shah II as Mughal emperor Empress of India 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901 vte Queen Victoria Events Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House Ball Reign Bedchamber crisisPrime MinistersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsState funeralMausoleum Family Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter)Edward VII (son)Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter)Princess Louise, duch*ess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)DescendantsRoyal descendantsPrincess Feodora of Leiningen (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother) Early life Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacy Honours PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant) Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020) Television Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019) Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972) Statues and Memorials List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt HelensLancasterBristolWeymouthChesterReadingLiverpoolBirminghamBirkenheadDundeeBalmoral cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney BuildingSquareAdelaideBrisbaneMelbourneChristchurch Poetry "The Widow at Windsor" (1892)"Recessional" (1897) Songs VictoriaChoral Songs Stamps British Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee Issue Colonial Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius "Post Office" stamps Related Osborne HouseQueen Victoria's journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond Crown vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund Ironsidecnu*tHarold IHarthacnu*tEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth II Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte British princesses The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used. 1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia 2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway 3rd generation Augusta, duch*ess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway 4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, duch*ess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester 5th generation Princess Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand duch*ess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, duch*ess of Teck 6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand duch*ess of Hesse and by RhinePrincess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, duch*ess of ArgyllPrincess Beatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover 7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and duch*ess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand duch*ess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, duch*ess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenPrincess Patricia, Lady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthlonePrincess Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand duch*ess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover 8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodPrincess Alexandra, 2nd duch*ess of FifePrincess Maud, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, duch*ess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece 9th generation Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 10th generation Anne, Princess Royal 11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor1 12th generation Princess Charlotte of Cambridge 1 Status debatable; see her article. vte Hanoverian princesses by birth Generations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III. 1st generation Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, duch*ess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia 2nd generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand duch*ess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, duch*ess of Teck 3rd generation Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie 4th generation Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand duch*ess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga 5th generation Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes 6th generation Princess Marie, Countess von HochbergPrincess OlgaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of LeiningenPrincess Friederike 7th generation Princess AlexandraPrincess Eugenia 8th generation Princess ElisabethPrincess EleonoraPrincess Sofia Authority control Edit this at Wikidata General ISNI 1VIAF 1WorldCat National libraries NorwaySpainFrance (data)CataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelUnited StatesLatviaJapanCzech RepublicAustraliaGreeceKoreaCroatiaNetherlandsPolandSwedenVatican Art galleries and museums VictoriaTe Papa (New Zealand) Art research institutes RKD Artists (Netherlands)Artist Names (Getty) Biographical dictionaries Germany Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject TerminologyMusicBrainz artist 2National Archives (US)RISM (France) 1Social Networks and Archival Context 2SUDOC (France) 1Trove (Australia) 1 Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManHeads of state of CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaHeads of state of New ZealandQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo What is an Antique 7 What exactly is an Antique? In purist words, and based on the “official” description from the United States Customs Service, antiques have generally been viewed as things with no less than a hundred years of age under their belts. Meaning the scale slides each year since a lot more items age to suit into that particular time period. Then again, the word antique is employed rather freely from the public, and frequently lands up highlighting the age of the individual utilizing it over the definite definition. For a teenager, for instance, a home kitchen items from the 60’s appears “antique,” while a older adult may see antiques as the numerous items they utilized or spotted in the homes of their grandparents as a kid. Varying Views Among “Experts” Obviously, you may ask several different antiques “experts” what exactly an antique is and you’ll obtain a few different answers. There have already been hot discussions about this very topic when multiple antiques experts have gathered to try and define the word antique. A few experts tend to look more at high design and style whenever deeming an item antique. They view antiques as “masterpieces” of style and of merely the best quality. For this evaluation, anything from primitive furniture of all ages to faceless Amish rag dolls coming from the late twentieth century wouldn’t be regarded antique no matter the scarcity of the object. A number of other experts don’t agree with these people. A great way to view it is the dividing line drawn in which styles totally changed from the old-fashioned look toward the contemporary. Hemlines were reduced and simplified, and Art Deco design was the extremely popular throughout the 1920s stepping into the 1930s. These types of fashion and design developments having a modern curve, and the like within this transitional period, offer a stark distinction into the elegant nature of Victorian, Edwardian, as well as Colonial influences observed in the past decades to hundreds of years. Bearing this in mind, one perspective is to see things made just before 1920 as antiques and newer items as “collectibles.” The antique scale slides with regards to the real age of these items as we go on to move ahead through the calendar, however. The moment 2020 comes around these objects will be regarded as antiques by the U.S. Customs Service definition thus broadly adopted in the field. How Must You Describe Objects You’re Selling? Perhaps even the most honest sellers having the best of intentions can do a miscalculation occasionally to describe their wares. However when sellers use terms improperly, particularly if they do it over and over again, those blunders could quickly ruin their integrity. For this reason alone it’s best if you try to obtain the facts straight. Distinguishing something that is actually a collectible – anything under a hundred years old – as an antique makes smart buyers feel as if you’re simply wanting to pull one over to them. It may also cause you to look ignorant as to what you’re selling, or much worse, dishonest. If the item is clearly newer than a hundred years in age, simply refer to it as a collectible. In case you actually think that a product is over a hundred years in age after doing research, then it’s completely fine to refer to it as an antique. A few online selling sites have got particular groups to adhere to which differentiate antiques from collectibles. You’ll do better by having it right, because potential clients will examine those classes for what they’re searching for apart from depending on keyword searches. Even when you are marketing in an antique shopping mall or in a show, marking and representing your things precisely helps you well. Clients will return over and over again to find out what’s new within your booth should you do your very best to provide them great product which has been carefully investigated and properly sold. Types of Antiques As stated over and over before, antiques are items of old things like home furniture and jewelry or uncommon things which have been stored for over a hundred years old. When you are planning to enter antique collecting, then you’ll discover that this is an incredibly satisfying exercise where you can find a number of classes involved. You’ll certainly discover a rare item or thing at numerous avenues such as antique art galleries or at local flea markets and car boot sales and prior to going out and begin purchasing all that hits your curiosity you must first know the types of antique. Generally, antiques are things that where possible over a century old while they’re recognized for being rare, incredible and valuable. Here are a few types of antique items: Antique Furniture 183-144-190-Rosewood-Rococo-Parlor-set-Laminated-Pierced-carved-sofa-74in-long-50in.-Tall-by-Meeks-Stanton-Hall-patt.jpg An antique furniture is a valuable interior decorations of old age. Frequently its age, uniqueness, condition, utility, or any other unique features makes a furniture piece appealing as a collectors’ item, and so called an “antique”. Antique furniture might provide the body of a human (like seating or beds), offer storage space, or carry items on horizontal surfaces on top of the ground. Storage furniture (which frequently employs doors, compartments, as well as shelves) is utilized to carry or contain little items like tools, clothes, books, as well as home items. Furniture could be a product of creative style and it is regarded a type of decorative art. Besides furniture’s useful function, it could function a emblematic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture functions to produce, along with furnishings like clocks and lighting, comfy and convenient interior spots. Furniture can be created from numerous materials, such as steel, plastic, as well as wood. Cabinets and cupboard making are terms for the set of skills utilized in the constructing of furniture. Antique Jewelry IMG0539-copy Antique jewellery is jewellery which has hit an age of a hundred years or even more which makes it a witness of history. It’s commonly employed for second hand jewelry and for jewellery produced in earlier (style-)periods and not always pre-worn jewellery. It isn’t a dequalifying designation as numerous items of antique jewellery usually feature fine craftsmanship and superior quality gemstones, and also one-of-a-kind items. Antique jewellery consists of numerous years or eras. All of them has numerous different styles. These periods can include Early Victorian, Georgian, Mid-Victorian, Late Victorian, Crafts and arts era, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, Retro and Art Deco. Throughout the years it was royals who requested and set trends for the various fashions obediently accompanied by the upper class and bourgeoisie. The church too was a vitally important commissioner, even though more for silversmiths compared to goldsmiths. Antique Clocks maxresdefault Just as the name suggests, this object refers to mechanical clocks which were made over a hundred years ago. However, mechanical clocks have carried on to be made well into the twentieth century and still being manufactured these days. It must be observed that the majority of mechanical clocks which have been made over the past a hundred years, example the ones that aren’t antique, have been produced in a factory employing mass production methods. Mechanical antique clocks are available in many forms, both ground standing grandfather (longcase) clocks, wall dangling clocks, rack and mantle clocks as well as mount or table clocks. Antique clocks could be run both by weights working under gravity, or perhaps by springs. The two weight driven clocks as well as spring driven clocks are often wrapped by a key or crank (key) over the dial in front of the clock. Antique Kitchenware vintage-antique-kitchen-utensils-l-3ad44d78a72aee02 Aged or historic kitchen items go by many different labels from “culinary antiques” to “vintage kitchenalia”. No matter whether they’re ancient or mid-20th century “retro”, nearly all old cooking, serving, as well as storage objects attract a few collector wherever. Numerous items are simple to recognize, although not all. It’s not at all times obvious if the simple box or pot or implement had a specific title or perhaps a specific use. A set of jars (earthenware, stoneware, glass from the twentieth century) as well as boxes (wooden, tin) was required whenever food was kept at home and groceries were offered unwrapped. Homes got various beaters, paddles, as well as bats – a number of them called beetles – for functions from tenderising meat to working butter to pumping the dirt away from clothes. Basic wooden boards, mixing sticks, and big spoons had a number of uses. At times kitchen collectibles are classified based on what they’re made from. Wood (treen), copper, tinware, stoneware and many others. . Edward VIII (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire and Emperor of India from 20 January 1936 until his abdication in December of the same year.[a] Edward was born during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria as the eldest child of the Duke and duch*ess of York, later King George V and Queen Mary. He was created Prince of Wales on his 16th birthday, seven weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, Edward served in the British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas tours on behalf of his father. While Prince of Wales, he engaged in a series of sexual affairs that worried both his father and then-British prime minister Stanley Baldwin. Upon his father's death in 1936, Edward became the second monarch of the House of Windsor. The new king showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, a constitutional crisis was caused by his proposal to marry Wallis Simpson, an American who had divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second. The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the marriage, arguing a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands was politically and socially unacceptable as a prospective queen consort. Additionally, such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward's status as titular head of the Church of England, which, at the time, disapproved of remarriage after divorce if a former spouse was still alive. Edward knew the Baldwin government would resign if the marriage went ahead, which could have forced a general election and would have ruined his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch. When it became apparent he could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne, he abdicated. He was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the shortest-reigning British monarchs to date. After his abdication, Edward was created Duke of Windsor. He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Nazi Germany, which fed rumours that he was a Nazi sympathiser. During the Second World War, Edward was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France but after the fall of France was appointed Governor of the Bahamas. After the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in France. He and Wallis remained married until his death in 1972; they had no children. Early life Edward (second from left) with his father and younger siblings (Albert and Mary), photograph by his grandmother Alexandra, 1899 Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park, on the outskirts of London during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria.[2] He was the eldest son of the Duke and duch*ess of York (later King George V and Queen Mary). His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra). His mother was the eldest daughter of Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge and Francis, Duke of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather and father. He was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury.[b] The name "Edward" was chosen in honour of Edward's late uncle Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, who was known within the family as "Eddy" (Edward being among his given names); "Albert" was included at the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert, Prince Consort; "Christian" was in honour of his great-grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark; and the last four names – George, Andrew, Patrick and David – came from, respectively, the patron saints of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.[4] He was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David.[5] As was common practice with upper-class children of the time, Edward and his younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by their parents. One of Edward's early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents. His subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and duch*ess to send him and the nanny away.[6] The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, and she was replaced by Charlotte Bill.[7] Edward's father, though a harsh disciplinarian,[8] was demonstratively affectionate,[9] and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master as a prank,[10] and encouraged them to confide in her.[11] Education Edward as a midshipman on board HMS Hindustan, 1910 Initially, Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. When his parents travelled the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with their grandparents, Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII, who showered their grandchildren with affection. Upon his parents' return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their remaining nursery years.[12] Edward was kept under the strict tutorship of Hansell until almost thirteen years old. Private tutors taught him German and French.[13] Edward took the examination to enter the Royal Naval College, Osborne, and began there in 1907. Hansell had wanted Edward to enter school earlier, but the prince's father had disagreed.[14] Following two years at Osborne College, which he did not enjoy, Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. A course of two years, followed by entry into the Royal Navy, was planned.[15] Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay on 6 May 1910 when his father ascended the throne as George V on the death of Edward VII. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a month later on 23 June 1910, his 16th birthday.[16] Preparations for his future as king began in earnest. He was withdrawn from his naval course before his formal graduation, served as midshipman for three months aboard the battleship Hindustan, then immediately entered Magdalen College, Oxford, for which, in the opinion of his biographers, he was underprepared intellectually.[15] A keen horseman, he learned how to play polo with the university club.[17] He left Oxford after eight terms, without any academic qualifications.[15] Prince of Wales Edward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at Caernarfon Castle on 13 July 1911.[18] The investiture took place in Wales, at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George, Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government.[19] Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the style of a Welsh pageant, and coached Edward to speak a few words in Welsh.[20] Edward in August 1915, during the First World War When the First World War broke out in 1914, Edward had reached the minimum age for active service and was keen to participate.[21] He had joined the Grenadier Guards in June 1914, and although Edward was willing to serve on the front lines, Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener refused to allow it, citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir apparent to the throne were captured by the enemy.[22] Despite this, Edward witnessed trench warfare first-hand and visited the front line as often as he could, for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916. His role in the war, although limited, made him popular among veterans of the conflict.[23] He undertook his first military flight in 1918, and later gained a pilot's licence.[24] Edward's youngest brother, Prince John, died at the age of 13 on 18 January 1919 after a severe epileptic seizure.[25] Edward, who was 11 years older than John and had hardly known him, saw his death as "little more than a regrettable nuisance".[26] He wrote to his mistress of the time that "[he had] told [her] all about that little brother, and how he was an epileptic. [John]'s been practically shut up for the last two years anyhow, so no one has ever seen him except the family, and then only once or twice a year. This poor boy had become more of an animal than anything else." He also wrote an insensitive letter to his mother which has since been lost.[27] She did not reply, but he felt compelled to write her an apology, in which he stated: "I feel such a cold hearted and unsympathetic swine for writing all that I did ... No one can realize more than you how little poor Johnnie meant to me who hardly knew him ... I feel so much for you, darling Mama, who was his mother."[26] Edward in Ashburton, New Zealand, with returned servicemen, 1920 Throughout the 1920s, Edward, as the Prince of Wales, represented his father at home and abroad on many occasions. His rank, travels, good looks, and unmarried status gained him much public attention. At the height of his popularity, he was the most photographed celebrity of his time and he set men's fashion.[28] During his 1924 visit to the United States, Men's Wear magazine observed, "The average young man in America is more interested in the clothes of the Prince of Wales than in any other individual on earth."[29] Edward visited poverty-stricken areas of Britain,[30] and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire between 1919 and 1935. On a tour of Canada in 1919, he acquired the Bedingfield ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta.[31] He escaped unharmed when the train he was riding in during a tour of Australia was derailed outside Perth in 1920.[32] Edward and his staff wearing kimono (yukata) in Japan, 1922 His November 1921 visit to India came during the non-cooperation movement protests for Indian self-rule, and was marked by riots in Bombay. In 1929 Sir Alexander Leith, a leading Conservative in the north of England, persuaded him to make a three-day visit to the County Durham and Northumberland coalfields, where there was much unemployment.[33] From January to April 1931, the Prince of Wales and his brother Prince George travelled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) on a tour of South America, steaming out on the ocean liner Oropesa,[34] and returning via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris–Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park.[35][36] Though widely travelled, Edward shared a widely held racial prejudice against foreigners and many of the Empire's subjects, believing that whites were inherently superior.[37] In 1920, on his visit to Australia, he wrote of Indigenous Australians: "they are the most revolting form of living creatures I've ever seen!! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are the nearest thing to monkeys."[38] In 1919, Edward agreed to be president of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park, Middlesex. He wished the Exhibition to include "a great national sports ground", and so played a part in the creation of Wembley Stadium.[39] Romances Portrait by Reginald Grenville Eves, c. 1920 By 1917, Edward liked to spend time partying in Paris while he was on leave from his regiment on the Western Front. He was introduced to Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert, with whom he became infatuated. He wrote her candid letters, which she kept. After about a year, Edward broke off the affair. In 1923, Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular murder trial after she shot her husband in the Savoy Hotel. Desperate efforts were made by the Royal Household to ensure that Edward's name was not mentioned in connection with the trial or Alibert.[40] Edward's womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, King George V, and those close to the prince. George V was disappointed by his son's failure to settle down in life, disgusted by his affairs with married women, and reluctant to see him inherit the Crown. "After I am dead," George said, "the boy will ruin himself in twelve months."[41] George V favoured his second son Albert ("Bertie") and Albert's daughter Elizabeth ("Lilibet"), later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II respectively. He told a courtier, "I pray to God that my eldest son will never marry and have children, and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne."[42] In 1929, Time magazine reported that Edward teased Albert's wife, also named Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), by calling her "Queen Elizabeth". The magazine asked if "she did not sometimes wonder how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname come true".[43] Thelma Furness and the Prince of Wales in 1932 In 1930, George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great Park.[44] There, he continued his relationships with a series of married women, including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness, the American wife of a British peer, who introduced the prince to her friend and fellow American Wallis Simpson. Simpson had divorced her first husband, U.S. Navy officer Win Spencer, in 1927. Her second husband, Ernest Simpson, was a British-American businessman. Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales, it is generally accepted, became lovers, while Lady Furness travelled abroad, although the prince adamantly insisted to his father that he was not having an affair with her and that it was not appropriate to describe her as his mistress.[45] Edward's relationship with Simpson, however, further weakened his poor relationship with his father. Although his parents met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935,[46] they later refused to receive her.[47] Edward's affair with an American divorcée led to such grave concern that the couple were followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch, who examined in secret the nature of their relationship. An undated report detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop, where the proprietor later noted "that the lady seemed to have POW [Prince of Wales] completely under her thumb."[48] The prospect of having an American divorcée with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures.[49] Reign Edward VIII surrounded by heralds of the College of Arms prior to his only State Opening of Parliament, 3 November 1936 George V died on 20 January 1936, and Edward ascended the throne as Edward VIII. The next day, accompanied by Simpson, he broke with custom by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James's Palace.[50] He became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council.[13] Edward caused unease in government circles with actions that were interpreted as interference in political matters. His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales that "something must be done"[13] for the unemployed coal miners was seen as an attempt to guide government policy, though he had not proposed any remedy or change in policy. Government ministers were reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort Belvedere, because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention to them, and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might read them, improperly or inadvertently revealing government secrets.[51] Edward's unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the coinage that bore his image. He broke with the tradition that the profile portrait of each successive monarch faced in the direction opposite to that of his or her predecessor. Edward insisted that he face left (as his father had done),[52] to show the parting in his hair.[53] Only a handful of test coins were struck before the abdication, and all are very rare.[54] When George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left to maintain the tradition by suggesting that, had any further coins been minted featuring Edward's portrait, they would have shown him facing right.[55] Left-facing coinage portrait of Edward VIII On 16 July 1936, Jerome Bannigan, alias George Andrew McMahon, produced a loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill, near Buckingham Palace. Police spotted the gun and pounced on him; he was quickly arrested. At Bannigan's trial, he alleged that "a foreign power" had approached him to kill Edward, that he had informed MI5 of the plan, and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch the real culprits. The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail for a year for "intent to alarm".[56] It is now thought that Bannigan had indeed been in contact with MI5, but the veracity of the remainder of his claims remains debatable.[57] In August and September, Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht Nahlin. By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to marry Simpson, especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons were brought at Ipswich Assizes.[58] Although gossip about his affair was widespread in the United States, the British media kept silent voluntarily, and the general public knew nothing until early December.[59] Abdication Main article: Abdication of Edward VIII Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson on their Mediterranean holiday, 1936 On 16 November 1936, Edward invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Simpson when she became free to remarry. Baldwin informed him that his subjects would deem the marriage morally unacceptable, largely because remarriage after divorce was opposed by the Church of England, and the people would not tolerate Simpson as queen.[60] As king, Edward was the titular head of the Church, and the clergy expected him to support the Church's teachings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang, was vocal in insisting that Edward must go.[61] Edward proposed an alternative solution of a morganatic marriage, in which he would remain king but Simpson would not become queen consort. She would enjoy some lesser title instead, and any children they might have would not inherit the throne. This was supported by senior politician Winston Churchill in principle, and some historians suggest that he conceived the plan.[61] In any event, it was ultimately rejected by the British Cabinet[62] as well as other Dominion governments.[63] The other governments' views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931, which provided in part that "any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom."[64] The Prime Ministers of Australia (Joseph Lyons), Canada (Mackenzie King) and South Africa (J. B. M. Hertzog) made clear their opposition to the king marrying a divorcée;[65] their Irish counterpart (Éamon de Valera) expressed indifference and detachment, while the Prime Minister of New Zealand (Michael Joseph Savage), having never heard of Simpson before, vacillated in disbelief.[66] Faced with this opposition, Edward at first responded that there were "not many people in Australia" and their opinion did not matter.[67] Cypher on a postbox erected during his short reign Edward informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson. Baldwin then presented Edward with three options: give up the idea of marriage; marry against his ministers' wishes; or abdicate.[68] It was clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson, and he knew that if he married against the advice of his ministers, he would cause the government to resign, prompting a constitutional crisis.[69] He chose to abdicate.[70] Edward duly signed the instruments of abdication[c] at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of his younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York, next in line for the throne; Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince George, Duke of Kent.[71] The document included these words: "declare my irrevocable determination to renounce the throne for myself and for my descendants and my desire that effect should be given to this instrument of abdication immediately".[72] The next day, the last act of his reign was the royal assent to His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. As required by the Statute of Westminster, all the Dominions had already consented to the abdication.[1] On the night of 11 December 1936, Edward, now reverted to the title and style of a prince, explained his decision to abdicate in a worldwide BBC radio broadcast. He said, "I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love." He added that the "decision was mine and mine alone ... The other person most nearly concerned has tried up to the last to persuade me to take a different course".[73] Edward departed Britain for Austria the following day; he was unable to join Simpson until her divorce became absolute, several months later.[74] His brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as George VI. Accordingly, George VI's elder daughter, Princess Elizabeth, became heir presumptive. Duke of Windsor On 12 December 1936, at the accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, George VI announced his intention to make his brother the "Duke of Windsor" with the style of Royal Highness.[75] He wanted this to be the first act of his reign, although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March the following year. During the interim, Edward was known as the Duke of Windsor. George VI's decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that he could neither stand for election to the British House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords.[76] Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 re-conferred the "title, style, or attribute of Royal Highness" upon the Duke, but specifically stated that "his wife and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute". Some British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since Edward had retained the style automatically, and further that Simpson would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style Her Royal Highness; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated king, and be referred to simply as "Mr Edward Windsor". On 14 April 1937, Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper, Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram, and himself: We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness. In other words, no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters Patent. The question however has to be considered on the basis of the fact that, for reasons which are readily understandable, he with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal documents. In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express step can be and is taken to deprive her of it. We came to the conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis. The right to use this style or title, in our view, is within the prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by Letters Patent generally or in particular circ*mstances.[77] Château de Candé, the Windsors' wedding venue The Duke married Simpson, who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield (her birth surname), in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937, at Château de Candé, near Tours, France. When the Church of England refused to sanction the union, a County Durham clergyman, the Reverend Robert Anderson Jardine (Vicar of St Paul's, Darlington), offered to perform the ceremony, and the Duke accepted. George VI forbade members of the royal family to attend,[78] to the lasting resentment of the Duke and duch*ess of Windsor. Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Lord Louis Mountbatten to attend the ceremony.[79] The denial of the style Royal Highness to the duch*ess of Windsor caused further conflict, as did the financial settlement. The Government declined to include the Duke or duch*ess on the Civil List, and the Duke's allowance was paid personally by George VI. The Duke compromised his position with his brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they informally agreed on the amount of the allowance. Edward's wealth had accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king. George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle, which were Edward's personal property, inherited from his father and thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession.[80] Edward received approximately £300,000 (equivalent to between £21 million and £140 million in 2021[81]) for both residences which was paid to him in yearly instalments. In the early days of George VI's reign the Duke telephoned daily, importuning for money and urging that the duch*ess be granted the style of Royal Highness, until the harassed king ordered that the calls not be put through.[82] Relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the royal family were strained for decades. The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France. King George VI (with the support of Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth) threatened to cut off Edward's allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation.[80] Edward became embittered against his mother, Queen Mary, writing to her in 1939: "[your last letter][d] destroy[ed] the last vestige of feeling I had left for you ... [and has] made further normal correspondence between us impossible."[83] Duke and duch*ess of Windsor in Germany, October 1937 Edward reviewing SS guards with Robert Ley The Duke and duch*ess meeting Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden In October 1937, the Duke and duch*ess visited Nazi Germany, against the advice of the British government, and met Adolf Hitler at his Berghof retreat in Bavaria. The visit was much publicised by the German media. During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes.[84] In Germany, "they were treated like royalty ... members of the aristocracy would bow and curtsy towards her, and she was treated with all the dignity and status that the duke always wanted", according to royal biographer Andrew Morton in a 2016 BBC interview.[85] The former Austrian ambassador, Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, who was also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V, believed that Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism, and even that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany.[86] According to the Duke of Windsor, the experience of "the unending scenes of horror"[87] during the First World War led him to support appeasem*nt. Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Germany and thought that Anglo-German relations could have been improved through Edward if it were not for the abdication. Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly: "I am certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been achieved. If he had stayed, everything would have been different. His abdication was a severe loss for us."[88] The Duke and duch*ess settled in Paris, leasing a mansion in Boulevard Suchet [fr] from late 1938.[89] Second World War In May 1939, the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio broadcast[90] (his first since abdicating) during a visit to the First World War battlefields of Verdun. In it he appealed for peace, saying "I am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead, and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be with me in what I am about to say. I speak simply as a soldier of the Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive madness shall never again overtake mankind. There is no land whose people want war." The broadcast was heard across the world by millions.[91][92] It was widely regarded as supporting appeasem*nt,[93] and the BBC refused to broadcast it.[90] It was broadcast outside the United States on shortwave radio[94] and was reported in full by British broadsheet newspapers.[95] On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the Duke and duch*ess were brought back to Britain by Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly, and Edward, although he held the rank of field marshal, was made a major-general attached to the British Military Mission in France.[13] In February 1940, the German ambassador in The Hague, Count Julius von Zech-Burkersroda, claimed that the Duke had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium,[96] which the Duke later denied.[97] When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940, the Windsors fled south, first to Biarritz, then in June to Francoist Spain. In July the pair moved to Portugal, where they lived at first in the home of Ricardo Espírito Santo, a Portuguese banker with both British and German contacts.[98] Under the code name Operation Willi, Nazi agents, principally Walter Schellenberg, plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to Spain, kidnapping him if necessary.[99] Lord Caldecote wrote a warning to Winston Churchill, who by this point was prime minister, that "[the Duke] is well-known to be pro-Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue."[100] Churchill threatened the Duke with a court-martial if he did not return to British soil.[101] In July 1940, Edward was appointed governor of the Bahamas. The Duke and duch*ess left Lisbon on 1 August aboard the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur, which was specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th.[102] They left Bermuda for Nassau on the Canadian National Steamship Company vessel Lady Somers on 15 August, arriving two days later.[103] The Duke did not enjoy being governor and privately referred to the islands as "a third-class British colony".[104] The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and duch*ess planned to cruise aboard a yacht belonging to Swedish magnate Axel Wenner-Gren, whom British and American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring.[105] The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire. He said of Étienne Dupuch, the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune: "It must be remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro, and due to the peculiar mentality of this Race, they seem unable to rise to prominence without losing their equilibrium."[106] He was praised, even by Dupuch, for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942, even though he blamed the trouble on "mischief makers – communists" and "men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft".[107] He resigned from the post on 16 March 1945.[13] Many historians have suggested that Adolf Hitler was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a fascist puppet government in Britain after Operation Sea Lion.[108] It is widely believed that the Duke and duch*ess sympathised with fascism before and during the Second World War, and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings. In 1940 he said: "In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct their policies accordingly."[109] During the occupation of France, the Duke asked the German Wehrmacht forces to place guards at his Paris and Riviera homes; they did so.[110] In December 1940, the Duke gave Fulton Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau. Oursler conveyed its content to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940.[111] The interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported to have said that "Hitler was the right and logical leader of the German people" and that the time was coming for President Roosevelt to mediate a peace settlement. The Duke protested that he had been misquoted and misinterpreted.[112] The Allies became sufficiently disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and duch*ess when they visited Palm Beach, Florida, in April 1941. Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg (then a monk in an American monastery) had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that the duch*ess had slept with the German ambassador in London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, in 1936; had remained in constant contact with him; and had continued to leak secrets.[113] Author Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt, an MI5 agent and Soviet spy, acting on orders from the British royal family, made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Allied-occupied Germany towards the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis.[114] What is certain is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian, Owen Morshead, accompanied by Blunt, then working part-time in the Royal Library as well as for British intelligence, to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers relating to the German Empress Victoria, the eldest child of Queen Victoria. Looters had stolen part of the castle's archive, including surviving letters between daughter and mother, as well as other valuables, some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war. The papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt, and those returned by the American authorities from Chicago, were deposited in the Royal Archives.[115] In the late 1950s, documents recovered by U.S. troops in Marburg, Germany, in May 1945, since titled the Marburg Files, were published following more than a decade of suppression, enhancing theories of the Duke's sympathies for Nazi ideologies.[116][117] After the war, the Duke admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans, but he denied being pro-Nazi. Of Hitler he wrote: "[the] Führer struck me as a somewhat ridiculous figure, with his theatrical posturings and his bombastic pretensions."[118] In the 1950s, journalist Frank Giles heard the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to "precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that's what [Eden] did, he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt and the Jews".[119] During the 1960s the Duke said privately to a friend, Patrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross, "I never thought Hitler was such a bad chap."[120] Later life The Duke of Windsor in 1945 Clementine (far left) and Winston Churchill with the Duke of Windsor on the French Riviera in 1948 At the end of the war, the couple returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never held another official role. Correspondence between the Duke and Kenneth de Courcy, dated between 1946 and 1949, emerged in a U.S. library in 2009. The letters suggest a scheme where the Duke would return to England and place himself in a position for a possible regency. The health of George VI was failing and de Courcy was concerned about the influence of the Mountbatten family over the young Princess Elizabeth. De Courcy suggested the Duke buy a working agricultural estate within an easy drive of London in order to gain favour with the British public and make himself available should the King become incapacitated. The Duke, however, hesitated and the King recovered from his surgery.[121] The Duke's allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal currency trading.[13][122][123] The City of Paris provided the Duke with a house at 4 route du Champ d'Entraînement, on the Neuilly-sur-Seine side of the Bois de Boulogne, for a nominal rent.[124] The French government also exempted him from paying income tax,[122][125] and the couple were able to buy goods duty-free through the British embassy and the military commissary.[125] In 1952, they bought and renovated a weekend country retreat, Le Moulin de la Tuilerie at Gif-sur-Yvette, the only property the couple ever owned themselves.[126] In 1951, the Duke had produced a ghost-written memoir, A King's Story, in which he expressed disagreement with liberal politics.[19] The royalties from the book added to their income.[122] The Duke and duch*ess effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of café society in the 1950s and 1960s. They hosted parties and shuttled between Paris and New York; Gore Vidal, who met the Windsors socially, reported on the vacuity of the Duke's conversation.[127] The couple doted on the pug dogs they kept.[128] In June 1953, instead of attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, his niece, in London, the Duke and duch*ess watched the ceremony on television in Paris. The Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former Sovereign to attend any coronation of another. He was paid to write articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman's Home Companion, as well as a short book, The Crown and the People, 1902–1953.[129] U.S. President Richard Nixon and the Duke and duch*ess of Windsor in 1970 In 1955, they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House. The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow's television-interview show Person to Person in 1956,[130] and in a 50-minute BBC television interview in 1970. On 4 April of that year President Richard Nixon invited them as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House with Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, Charles Lindbergh, Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Arnold Palmer, George H. W. Bush, and Frank Borman.[131][132] The royal family never fully accepted the duch*ess. Queen Mary refused to receive her formally. However, Edward sometimes met his mother and his brother, George VI; he attended George's funeral in 1952. Queen Mary remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis: "To give up all this for that", she said.[133] In 1965, the Duke and duch*ess returned to London. They were visited by Elizabeth II, his sister-in-law Princess Marina, duch*ess of Kent, and his sister Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood. A week later, the Princess Royal died, and they attended her memorial service. In 1967, they joined the royal family for the centenary of Queen Mary's birth. The last royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in 1968.[134] He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969, replying that Prince Charles would not want his "aged great-uncle" there.[135] In the 1960s, the Duke's health deteriorated. Michael E. DeBakey operated on him in Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta in December 1964, and Sir Stewart Duke-Elder treated a detached retina in his left eye in February 1965. In late 1971, the Duke, who was a smoker from an early age, was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy. On 18 May 1972, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Duke and duch*ess of Windsor while on a state visit to France; she spoke with the Duke for fifteen minutes, but only the duch*ess appeared with the royal party for a photocall as the Duke was too ill.[136] Death and legacy Edward's grave at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore On 28 May 1972, ten days after the Queen's visit, the Duke died at his home in Paris, less than a month before his 78th birthday. His body was returned to Britain, lying in state at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The funeral service took place in the chapel on 5 June in the presence of the Queen, the royal family, and the duch*ess of Windsor, who stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit. He was buried in the Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Frogmore.[137] Until a 1965 agreement with the Queen, the Duke and duch*ess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, where the duch*ess's father was interred.[138] Frail, and suffering increasingly from dementia, the duch*ess died in 1986, and was buried alongside her husband.[139] In the view of historians, such as Philip Williamson writing in 2007, the popular perception in the 21st century that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious morality is false and arises because divorce has become much more common and socially acceptable. To modern sensibilities, the religious restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while planning to marry Simpson "seem, wrongly, to provide insufficient explanation" for his abdication.[140] Honours and arms Royal Standard of the Duke of Windsor Honours Portrait of Edward in the robes of the Order of the Garter by Arthur Stockdale Cope, 1912 British Commonwealth and Empire honours KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 1910[141] MC: Military Cross, 1916[142] GCMG: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 1917[141] GBE: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire, 1917[141] ADC: Personal aide-de-camp, 3 June 1919[143] GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1920[141] PC: Privy Counsellor, (United Kingdom) 1920[141] GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 1921[141] GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 1921[141] Royal Victorian Chain, 1921[141] KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 1922[141] GCStJ: Bailiff Grand Cross of St John, 12 June 1926[144] KStJ: Knight of Justice of St John, 2 June 1917[145] KP: Knight of St Patrick, 1927[141] PC: Privy Councillor of Canada, 1927[146] GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 1936[141] ISO: Companion of the Imperial Service Order, 23 June 1910[147] FRS: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society[141] Foreign honours Grand Duchy of Hesse Knight of the Golden Lion, 23 June 1911[148] Spain Knight of the Golden Fleece, 22 June 1912[149] French Third Republic Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, August 1912[150] Denmark Knight of the Elephant, 17 March 1914[151] Norway Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 6 April 1914[152] Kingdom of Italy Knight of the Annunciation, 21 June 1915[153] French Third Republic Croix de Guerre, 1915 Russian Empire Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, 1916[154] Thailand Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 16 August 1917[155] Kingdom of Romania Order of Michael the Brave, 1st Class, 1918[154] Kingdom of Italy War Merit Cross, 1919 Kingdom of Egypt Grand Cordon of the Order of Mohamed Ali, 1922[154] Sweden Knight of the Seraphim, 12 November 1923[156] Kingdom of Romania Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1924[154] Chile Order of Merit, 1st Class, 1925[154] Bolivia Grand Cross of the Condor of the Andes, 1931[154] Peru Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru, 1931[154] Portugal Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 25 April 1931 – during his visit to Lisbon[157] Brazil Grand Cross of the Southern Cross, 1933[154] San Marino Grand Cross of St. Agatha, 1935[154] Military ranks 22 June 1911: Midshipman, Royal Navy[158] 17 March 1913: Lieutenant, Royal Navy[158] 18 November 1914: Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, British Army. (First World War, Flanders and Italy)[158] 10 March 1916: Captain, British Army[158] 1918: Temporary Major, British Army[158] 15 April 1919: Colonel, British Army[158] 8 July 1919: Captain, Royal Navy[158] 5 December 1922: Group Captain, Royal Air Force[158][159] 1 September 1930: Vice-Admiral, Royal Navy; Lieutenant-General, British Army;[160] Air Marshal, Royal Air Force[161] 1 January 1935: Admiral, Royal Navy; General, British Army; Air Chief Marshal, Royal Air Force[162] 21 January 1936: Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Navy; Field Marshal, British Army; Marshal of the Royal Air Force[158] 3 September 1939: Major-General, British Army[163] Arms Edward's coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, with an inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet (identical to those of Charles III when he was Prince of Wales). As Sovereign, he bore the royal arms undifferenced. After his abdication, he used the arms again differenced by a label of three points argent, but this time with the centre point bearing an imperial crown.[164] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor Ancestry Ancestors of Edward VIII[166] See also Cultural depictions of Edward VIII of the United Kingdom Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII List of prime ministers of Edward VIII Notes The instrument of abdication was signed on 10 December, and given legislative form by His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the following day. The parliament of the Union of South Africa retroactively approved the abdication with effect from 10 December, and the Irish Free State recognised the abdication on 12 December.[1] His twelve godparents were: Queen Victoria (his paternal great-grandmother); the King and Queen of Denmark (his paternal great-grandparents, for whom his maternal uncle Prince Adolphus of Teck and his paternal aunt the duch*ess of Fife stood proxy); the King of Württemberg (his mother's distant cousin, for whom his granduncle the Duke of Connaught stood proxy); the Queen of Greece (his grandaunt, for whom his paternal aunt Princess Victoria of Wales stood proxy); the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (his granduncle, for whom Prince Louis of Battenberg stood proxy); the Prince and Princess of Wales (his paternal grandparents); the Tsarevich (his father's cousin); the Duke of Cambridge (his maternal granduncle and Queen Victoria's cousin); and the Duke and duch*ess of Teck (his maternal grandparents).[3] There were fifteen separate copies – one for each Dominion, the Irish Free State, India, the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Prime Minister, among others.[71] She had asked Alec Hardinge to write to the Duke explaining that he could not be invited to his father's memorial.[83] References Heard, Andrew (1990), Canadian Independence, Simon Fraser University, Canada, archived from the original on 21 February 2009, retrieved 1 May 2010 Windsor, p. 1 "No. 26533". The London Gazette. 20 July 1894. p. 4145. Ziegler, p. 5 Ziegler, p. 6 Windsor, p. 7; Ziegler, p. 9 Wheeler-Bennett, pp. 16–17 Windsor, pp. 25–28 Ziegler, pp. 30–31 Windsor, pp. 38–39 Ziegler, p. 79 Parker, pp. 12–13 Matthew, H. C. G. (September 2004; online edition January 2008) "Edward VIII, later Prince Edward, duke of Windsor (1894–1972)" Archived 5 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/31061, retrieved 1 May 2010 (Subscription required) Parker, pp. 13–14 Parker, pp. 14–16 "No. 28387". The London Gazette. 23 June 1910. p. 4473. "The Prince of Wales Starts Play" (PDF), Polo Monthly, p. 300, June 1914, archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2018, retrieved 30 July 2018 Weir, Alison (1996), Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy Revised edition, London: Pimlico, p. 327, ISBN 978-0-7126-7448-5 Windsor, p. 78 Ziegler, pp. 26–27 Windsor, pp. 106–107 and Ziegler, pp. 48–50 Roberts, p. 41 and Windsor, p. 109 Ziegler, p. 111 and Windsor, p. 140 Edward VIII (Jan–Dec 1936), Official website of the British monarchy, 12 January 2016, archived from the original on 7 May 2016, retrieved 18 April 2016 "Death of Youngest Son of King and Queen". Daily Mirror. 20 January 1919. p. 2. Ziegler, p. 80 Tizley, Paul (director) (2008), Prince John: The Windsors' Tragic Secret Archived 8 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Documentary), London: Channel 4, retrieved 26 April 2017 Broad, Lewis (1961), The Abdication: Twenty-five Years After. A Re-appraisal, London: Frederick Muller Ltd, pp. 4–5 Flusser, Alan J. (2002), Dressing the man: mastering the art of permanent fashion, New York, NY: HarperCollins, p. 8, ISBN 0-06-019144-9, OCLC 48475087 Windsor, p. 215 Voisey, Paul (2004), High River and the Times: an Alberta community and its weekly newspaper, 1905–1966, Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta, p. 129, ISBN 978-0-88864-411-4 Staff writers (6 July 2017), "Remarkable photographs show how Edward VIII narrowly escaped death in train crash", Daily Express, archived from the original on 11 November 2020, retrieved 17 January 2021 Windsor, pp. 226–228 Erskine, Barry, Oropesa (II), Pacific Steam Navigation Company, archived from the original on 4 March 2016, retrieved 15 December 2013 "Arrival at Windsor by Air", The Straits Times, National Library, Singapore, 30 April 1931, archived from the original on 29 October 2014, retrieved 18 December 2013 "Princes Home", The Advertiser and Register, National Library of Australia, p. 19, 1 May 1931, archived from the original on 25 November 2021, retrieved 18 December 2013 Ziegler, pp. 158, 448 Godfrey, Rupert, ed. (1998), "11 July 1920", Letters From a Prince: Edward to Mrs. Freda Dudley Ward 1918–1921, Little, Brown & Co, ISBN 978-0-7515-2590-8 Grant, Philip (January 2012), The British Empire Exhibition, 1924/25 (PDF), Brent Council, archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2017, retrieved 18 July 2016 Rose, Andrew (2013), The Prince, the Princess and the Perfect Murder, Hodder & Stoughton reviewed in Stonehouse, Cheryl (5 April 2013), "A new book brings to light the scandalous story of Edward VIII's first great love", Express Newspapers, archived from the original on 19 September 2020, retrieved 1 July 2020 See also: Godfrey, pp. 138, 143, 299; Ziegler, pp. 89–90 Middlemas, Keith; Barnes, John (1969), Baldwin: A Biography, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 976, ISBN 978-0-297-17859-0 Airlie, Mabell (1962), Thatched with Gold, London: Hutchinson, p. 197 "Foreign News: P'incess Is Three", Time, 29 April 1929, archived from the original on 27 February 2014, retrieved 1 May 2010 Windsor, p. 235 Ziegler, p. 233 Windsor, p. 255 Bradford, p. 142 Bowcott, Owen; Bates, Stephen (30 January 2003), "Car dealer was Wallis Simpson's secret lover", The Guardian, London, archived from the original on 28 December 2013, retrieved 1 May 2010 Ziegler, pp. 231–234 Windsor, p. 265; Ziegler, p. 245 Ziegler, pp. 273–274 Windsor, pp. 293–294 A. 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The London Gazette. 2 September 1930. p. 5428. "No. 34119". The London Gazette (Supplement). 28 December 1934. p. 15. The Times, 19 September 1939, p. 6, col. F Prothero, David (24 September 2002), Flags of the Royal Family, United Kingdom, archived from the original on 31 March 2010, retrieved 2 May 2010 "No. 28473". The London Gazette. 7 March 1911. p. 1939. Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh, ed. (1973), "The Royal Lineage", Burke's Guide to the Royal Family, London: Burke's Peerage, pp. 252, 293, 307, ISBN 0-220-66222-3 Bibliography Bloch, Michael (1982). The Duke of Windsor's War. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77947-8. Bradford, Sarah (1989). King George VI. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-79667-4. Donaldson, Frances (1974). Edward VIII. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-76787-9. Godfrey, Rupert (editor) (1998). Letters From a Prince: Edward to Mrs Freda Dudley Ward 1918–1921. Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 0-7515-2590-1. Parker, John (1988). 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Edit this at Wikidata Portraits of Edward, Duke of Windsor at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Newspaper clippings about Edward VIII in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Edward VIII House of Windsor Cadet branch of the House of Wettin Born: 23 June 1894 Died: 28 May 1972 Regnal titles Preceded by George V King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions; Emperor of India 20 January – 11 December 1936 Succeeded by George VI British royalty Preceded by George (V) Prince of Wales Duke of Cornwall; Duke of Rothesay 1910–1936 Vacant Title next held by Charles (III) Government offices Preceded by Sir Charles Dundas Governor of the Bahamas 1940–1945 Succeeded by Sir William Lindsay Murphy Honorary titles Vacant Title last held by The Prince of Wales Grand Master of the Order of St Michael and St George 1917–1936 Succeeded by The Earl of Athlone New title Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire 1917–1936 Succeeded by Queen Mary Air Commodore-in-Chief of the Auxiliary Air Force 1932–1936 Succeeded by King George VI Academic offices New office Chancellor of the University of Cape Town 1918–1936 Succeeded by Jan Smuts Articles and topics related to Edward VIII vte Abdication of Edward VIII Edward VIII Wallis Simpson People Royal Family Prince Albert (Edward VIII's brother, later George VI) Prince Henry (Edward VIII's brother) Prince George (Edward VIII's brother) Queen Mary (Edward VIII's mother) Officials Stanley Baldwin (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) Clement Attlee (Leader of the Opposition in the United Kingdom) Winston Churchill (MP and supporter of Edward VIII) William Lyon Mackenzie King (Prime Minister of Canada) Joseph Lyons (Prime Minister of Australia) Michael Joseph Savage (Prime Minister of New Zealand) J. B. M. Hertzog (Prime Minister of South Africa) Éamon de Valera (President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State) Stanley Bruce (High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom) Clergy Cosmo Gordon Lang (Archbishop of Canterbury) Alfred Blunt (Bishop of Bradford) Other Alec Hardinge (Edward VIII's private secretary) Alan Lascelles (Edward VIII's assistant private secretary) Walter Monckton (advisor to Edward VIII) John Theodore Goddard (Mrs Simpson's solicitor) Ernest Simpson (Mrs Simpson's husband) Legal documents His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 (United Kingdom) Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936 (Ireland) His Majesty King Edward the Eighth's Abdication Act, 1937 (South Africa) Succession to the Throne Act, 1937 (Canada) Cultural depictions Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978) The Woman He Loved (1988) Bertie and Elizabeth (2002) Wallis & Edward (2005) The King's Speech (2010) W.E. (2012) The Crown (S1 E3): "Windsor" (2016) Related events Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII 1937 tour of Germany by the Duke and duch*ess of Windsor Funeral of Edward, Duke of Windsor vte English, Scottish and British monarchs Monarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Sweyn Edmund Ironside cnu*t Harold I Harthacnu*t Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VI Charles I Charles II James II and VII William III and II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vte Emperors of India Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI vte Monarchy in Canada The Crown Monarchy in the Canadian provinces BC AB SK MB ON QC NB NS PE NL Monarchs Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Viceroys Governor General of Canada List Lieutenant governors in Canada BC List AB List SK List MB List ON List QC List NB List NS List PE List NL List Territorial Commissioners Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal Appointments Constitutional King-in-Council King-in-Parliament King-on-the-Bench King's peace The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Armed Forces The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of Canada Legal Crown copyright Crown corporations King's Consent King's Printer Royal charter Royal commissions Ceremonial and symbolic Chapels Royal Crown Collection Royal symbols Royal tours 1786–1999 2000–present Special address Title and style Related Canadian Secretary to the King History of monarchy in Canada Debate on the monarchy in Canada vte British princes The generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. 1st generation King George II 2nd generation Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland 3rd generation King George III Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn Prince Frederick 4th generation King George IV Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany King William IV Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn King Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince Octavius Prince Alfred Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh 5th generation Prince Albert1 King George V of Hanover Prince George, Duke of Cambridge 6th generation King Edward VII Prince Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Prince Ernest Augustus 7th generation Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale King George V Prince Alexander John of Wales Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur of Connaught Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince George William of Hanover Prince Christian of Hanover Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick 8th generation King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Prince George, Duke of Kent Prince John Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Hubertus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince George William of Hanover 9th generation Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh2 Prince William of Gloucester Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester Prince Edward, Duke of Kent Prince Michael of Kent 10th generation King Charles III Prince Andrew, Duke of York Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar 11th generation William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn3 12th generation Prince George of Wales Prince Louis of Wales Archie Mountbatten-Windsor3 1 Not a British prince by birth, but created Prince Consort. 2 Not a British prince by birth, but created a Prince of the United Kingdom. 3 Status debatable; see James, Viscount Severn#Titles and styles and Archie Mountbatten-Windsor#Title and succession for details. Princes that lost their title and status or did not use the title are shown in italics. vte Princes of Wales Edward (1301–1307) Edward (1343–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Edward (1454–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1471–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1729–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) See also: Principality of Wales vte Dukes of Cornwall Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Cornwall Portal vte Dukes of Rothesay David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) vte Princes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Forefather Duke Francis I* 1st generation Duke Ernest I* Prince Ferdinand* King Leopold I of the Belgians* 2nd generation Ducal Duke Ernest II* Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom* Koháry King Ferdinand II of Portugal and the Algarves* Prince August* Prince Leopold* Belgium Crown Prince Louis Philippe King Leopold II Prince Philippe 3rd generation United Kingdom King Edward VII Duke Alfred I Prince Arthur Prince Leopold Portugal King Pedro V King Luís I Infante João Infante Fernando Infante Augusto Koháry Prince Philipp Prince Ludwig August Tsar Ferdinand I of the Bulgarians Belgium Prince Leopold Prince Baudouin King Albert I 4th generation United Kingdom Prince Albert Victor King George V Hereditary Prince Alfred Prince Arthur Duke Charles Edward I Portugal King Carlos I Infante Afonso Koháry Prince Leopold Clement Prince Pedro Augusto Prince August Leopold Prince Joseph Ferdinand Prince Ludwig Gaston Bulgaria Tsar Boris III Prince Kiril Belgium King Leopold III Prince Charles 5th generation United Kingdom King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry Prince George Prince John Prince Alastair Ducal Hereditary Prince Johann Leopold Prince Hubertus Prince Friedrich Josias Portugal Prince Luís Filipe King Manuel II Koháry Prince Rainer Prince Philipp Bulgaria Tsar Simeon II Belgium King Baudouin I King Albert II Prince Alexandre 6th generation Ducal Prince Andreas Koháry Prince Johannes Heinrich Bulgaria Prince Kardam Prince Kyril Belgium King Philippe I Prince Laurent 7th generation Bulgaria Prince Boris Belgium Prince Gabriel Prince Emmanuel *Titled as Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld before 11 February 1826 vte Grand Masters of the Order of St Michael and St George Sir Thomas Maitland The Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince George, Duke of Cambridge The Prince George, Prince of Wales Vacant The Prince Edward, Prince of Wales Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis Prince Edward, Duke of Kent StMichaelandStGeorgeInsignia.jpg vte Heads of State of South Africa Monarch (1910–1961) George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Red Ensign of South Africa (1912–1951).svg Flag of South Africa (1928–1994).svg Flag of South Africa.svg State President (1961–1994) (under Apartheid) Charles Robberts Swart Eben Dönges† Tom Naudé* Jim Fouché Jan de Klerk* Nico Diederichs† Marais Viljoen* John Vorster Marais Viljoen P. W. Botha F. W. de Klerk President (from 1994) (post-Apartheid) Nelson Mandela Thabo Mbeki Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri* Kgalema Motlanthe Jacob Zuma Cyril Ramaphosa †Died in office *Acting President Authority control Edit this at Wikidata Categories: Edward VIII1894 births1972 deaths19th-century British people20th-century Bahamian people20th-century British monarchsAbdication of Edward VIIIAlumni of Magdalen College, OxfordBritish Army personnel of World War IBritish emigrants to FranceBritish field marshalsBritish governors of the BahamasBurials at the Royal Burial Ground, FrogmoreChildren of George VDeaths from cancer in FranceDeaths from throat cancerDukes created by George VIDukes of CornwallDukes of RothesayEmperors of IndiaEnglish memoiristsFreemasons of the United Grand Lodge of EnglandGrand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)Grand Crosses of the Order of AvizGrand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of PeruGrenadier Guards officersHeads of state of CanadaHeads of state of New ZealandHeirs to the British throneHigh Stewards of ScotlandHonorary Fellows of the Royal Society of EdinburghHouse of WindsorKings of the Irish Free StateKnights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian EmpireKnights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of IndiaBailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St JohnKnights of St PatrickKnights of the GarterKnights of the Golden Fleece of SpainMarshals of the Royal Air ForceMembers of the Queen's Privy Council for CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaMonarchs of South AfricaMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs who abdicatedPeople educated at the Royal Naval College, OsbornePeople from Richmond, LondonPeople of the Victorian eraPrinces of the United KingdomPrinces of WalesRecipients of the Military CrossRoyal Navy admirals of the fleetBritish princesMilitary personnel from SurreySons of emperorsSons of kings

• Condition: In Good Condition for its age over 135 years old
• Denomination: Crown
• Year of Issue: 1888
• Era: Victoria (1837-1901)
• Certification Number: 1888
• Fineness: 0.925
• Grade: Ungraded
• Country/Region of Manufacture: United Kingdom
• Country of Origin: Great Britain
• Certification: Uncertified

• 1888 Victoria Silver Crown Ref 222

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• 1892 VICTORIA CROWN Solid 0.925 Silver Antique Coin Old Proof Nicely Toned

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• 1890 Crown - Victoria British Silver Coin - Very Nice

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• Queen Victoria. Silver Sixpence 1888. Jubilee Head

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• 1890 Victoria crown UK silver coin

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• 1887 Queen Victoria Jubilee Head Silver Crown Coin UNC (2)

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• 1897 United Kingdom Old Coin - British Crown Victoria Queen Coin

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• 1890 Victoria Jubilee Head 0.925 Silver Crown Coin

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• 1893 Victoria silver crown - five shilling coin - 27.8g - ex-mount

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• UK 1888 European England One Crown Queen Victoria Coin

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• Victoria Veiled Head Crown 1893

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• Victoria Veiled Head Crown 1899---

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• 1890 Crown Silver Coin. Queen Victoria.NICE TONE ,VERY GOOD CONDITION

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• 1897 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Juventus Formed Dark Toned

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